Archival science

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Various documents curated for readers at the National Archives, UK Documents ordered by readers at The National Archives.jpg
Various documents curated for readers at the National Archives, UK

Archival science, or archival studies, is the study and theory of building and curating archives, which are collections of documents, recordings, photographs and various other materials in physical or digital formats.

Contents

To build and curate an archive, one must acquire and evaluate the materials, and be able to access them later. To this end, archival science seeks to improve methods for appraising, storing, preserving, and processing (arranging and describing) collections of materials. [1]

An archival record preserves data that is not intended to change. In order to be of value to society, archives must be trustworthy. Therefore, an archivist has a responsibility to authenticate archival materials, such as historical documents, and to ensure their reliability, integrity, and usability. Archival records must be what they claim to be; accurately represent the activity they were created for; present a coherent picture through an array of content; and be in usable condition in an accessible location. [2]

An archive curator is called an archivist ; the curation of an archive is called archive administration.

History

The earliest archival manuals: Jacob von Rammingen, Von der Registratur (1571), Baldassarre Bonifacio, De Archivis (1632) Archivistica2.pdf
The earliest archival manuals: Jacob von Rammingen, Von der Registratur (1571), Baldassarre Bonifacio, De Archivis (1632)

Archival science emerged from diplomatics, the critical analysis of documents. [3] [4]

In 1540, Jacob von Rammingen (1510–1582) wrote the manuscript of the earliest known archival manual. He was an expert on registries (Registraturen), the German word for what later became known as archives. [5]

Rammingen elaborated a registry for the Augsburg city council. However, since he could not attend the council meeting, he described the structure and management of the archives in writing. Although this is not the first work about archival science (Rammingen himself refers to earlier literature about record-keeping), earlier manuals were usually not published. Archival science had no formal beginning. Jacob von Rammingen's manual was printed in Heidelberg in 1571. [5]

Traditionally, archival science has involved the study of methods for preserving items in climate-controlled storage facilities. It is also the study of cataloguing and accession, of retrieval and safe handling. The advent of digital documents along with the development of electronic databases has caused the field to re-evaluate its means and ends. [6] While generally associated with museums and libraries, the field also can pertain to individuals who maintain private collections or business archives. Archival Science is taught in colleges and universities, usually under the umbrella of Information Science or paired with a History program.

A list of foundational thinkers in archival studies could include: American archivist Theodore Schellenberg and British archivist Sir Hilary Jenkinson. Some important archival thinkers of the past century include: Canadian archivist and scholar Terry Cook, South African archivist Verne Harris, Australian archival scholar Sue McKemmish, UCLA faculty and archival scholar Anne Gilliland, University of Michigan faculty and archival scholar Margaret Hedstrom, American archival scholar and University of Pittsburgh faculty member Richard Cox, Italian archival scholar and faculty at University of British Columbia Luciana Duranti, and American museum and archival scholar David Bearman.

Standards

There is no universal set of laws or standards that governs the form or mission of archival institutions. [7] The forms, functions, and mandates of archival programs and institutions tend to differ based on geographical location and language, the nature of the society in which they exist and the objectives of those in control of the archives. [7] Instead, the current standards that have been provided and are most widely followed, such as the ICA standard, ISO standard, and DIRKS standard, act as working guidelines for archives to follow and adapt in ways that would best suit their respective needs.

Following the introduction of computer technology in archival repositories, beginning in the 1970s, archivists increasingly recognized the need to develop common standards for descriptive practice, in order to facilitate the dissemination of archival descriptive information. [8] The standard developed by archivists in Canada, Rules for Archival Description , also known as RAD, was first published in 1990. As a standard, RAD aims to provide archivists with a consistent and common foundation for the description of archival material within a fonds , based on traditional archival principles. [9] A comparable standard used in the United States is Describing Archives: A Content Standard , also known as DACS. [10] These standards are in place to provide archivists with the tools for describing and making accessible archival material to the public. [11]

Metadata comprises contextual data pertaining to a record or aggregate of records. In order to compile metadata consistently, so as to enhance the discoverability of archival materials for users, as well as support the care and preservation of the materials by the archival institution, archivists look to standards appropriate to various kinds of metadata for different purposes, including administration, description, preservation, and digital storage and retrieval. For example, common standards used by archivists for structuring descriptive metadata, which conveys information such as the form, extent, and content of archival materials, include Machine-Readable Cataloguing (MARC format), Encoded Archival Description (EAD), and Dublin core. [12]

Provenance in archival science

File of documents, year 1542 Year 1542 File.jpg
File of documents, year 1542

Provenance in archival science refers to the "origin or source of something; information regarding the origins, custody, and ownership of an item or collection". [13] As a fundamental principle of archives, provenance refers to the individual, family, or organization that created or received the items in a collection. In practice, provenance dictates that records of different origins should be kept separate to preserve their context. [13] As a methodology, provenance becomes a means of describing records at the series level.

The principle of provenance

Describing records at the series level to ensure that records of different origins are kept separate, provided an alternative to item-level manuscript cataloguing. [14] The practice of provenance has two major concepts: " respect des fonds ", and "original order". "Respect des fonds" rose from the conviction that records entering an archive have an essential connection to the person or office that generated and used them; archivists consider all the records originating with a particular administrative unit (whether former, or still existing) to be a separate archival grouping, or "fonds", and seek to preserve and describe the records accordingly, with close attention to evidence of how they were organized and maintained at the time they were created. [15] : 167–168  "Original order", refers to keeping records "as nearly as possible in the same order of classification as obtained in the offices of origin", gives additional credibility to preserved records and to their originating "fonds". [14] Records must be kept in the same order they were placed in the course of the official activity of the agency concerned; records are not to be artificially reorganized. Records kept in their original order are more likely to reveal the nature of the organizations which created them, and more importantly, of the order of activities out of which they emerged. [16]

Not infrequently, practical considerations of storage mean that it is impossible to maintain the original order of records physically. In such cases, however, the original order should still be respected intellectually in the structure and arrangement of finding aids.

Practices before the emergence of provenance

Following the French Revolution, a newfound appreciation for historical records emerged in French society. Records began to "acquir[e] the dignity of national monuments", [17] and their care was entrusted to scholars who were trained in libraries. [16] The emphasis was on historical research, and it seemed obvious at the time that records should be arranged and catalogued in a manner that would "facilitate every kind of scholarly use". [17] [16] To support research, artificial systematic collections, often arranged by topic, were established and records were catalogued into these schemes. [15] With archival documents approached from a librarianship perspective, records were organized according to classification schemes and their original context of creation were frequently lost or obscured. [16] This form of archival arrangement has come to be known as the "historical manuscripts tradition".

Emergence of provenance

The principle of " respect des fonds " and of "original order" was adopted in Belgium and France about 1840 and spread throughout Europe during the following decades. [15] Following the rise of state-run archives in France and Prussia, the increasing volume of modern records entering the archive made adherence to the manuscript tradition impossible; there were not enough resources to organize and classify each record. Provenance received its most pointed expression in the "Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives", a Dutch text published in 1898 and written by three Dutch archivists, Samuel Muller, Johan Feith, and Robert Fruin. This text provided the first description of the principle of provenance and argued that "original order" is an essential trait of archival arrangement and description. [18]

Complementing the work of the Dutch archivists and supporting the concept of provenance were the historians of the era. Through subject-based classification aided research, historians began to concern themselves with objectivity in their source material. For its advocates, provenance provided an objective alternative to the generally subjective classification schemes borrowed from librarianship. Historians increasingly felt that records should be maintained in their original order to better reflect the activity out of which they emerged.

Debates

Although original order is a generally accepted principle, there has been some debate about applicability to personal archiving. [15] Original order is not always ideal for personal archives. [16] However, some archivists insist that personal records are created and maintained for much the same reason as organizational archives and should follow the same principles. [16]

Preservation in archival science

Archival boxes at the NASA archives NASA history archives.jpg
Archival boxes at the NASA archives

Preservation, as defined by the Society of American Archivists (SAA), is the act of protecting materials from physical deterioration or loss of information, ideally in a noninvasive way. [19] The goal of preservation is to maintain as much originality as possible while retaining all the information which the material has to offer. Both scientific principles and professional practices are applied to this technique to be maximally effective. In an archival sense, preservation refers to the care of all the aggregates within a collection. Conservation can be included in this practice and often these two definitions overlap. [11]

The beginnings of preservation

Preservation emerged with the establishment of the first central archives. In 1789, during the French Revolution, the Archives Nationales was established and later, in 1794, transformed into a central archive. [15] This was the first independent national archive and its goal was to preserve and store documents and records as they were. This trend gained popularity and soon other countries began establishing national archives for the same reasons, to maintain and preserve their records as they were created and received. [11]

Cultural and scientific change reinforced the concept and practice of preservation. In the late eighteenth century, many museums, national libraries, and national archives were established in Europe; therefore ensuring the preservation of their cultural heritage. [11]

Archival preservation

Preservation, like provenance, is concerned with the proper representation of archival materials. Archivists are primarily concerned with maintaining the record, along with the context in which it was produced, and making this information accessible to the user. [11]

Tout ensemble is a definition relating to preservation. This definition encompasses the idea of context and the importance of maintaining context. When a record is removed from its fellow records, it loses its meaning. In order to preserve a record it must be preserved in its original entirety or else it may lose its significance. This definition relates to the principle of provenance and respect des fonds as it similarly emphasizes the idea of the original record. [11]

Metadata is key for the preservation of context within archival science. Metadata, as defined by the SAA, is "data about data". [12] This data can help archivists locate a specific record, or a variety of records within a certain category. By assigning appropriate metadata to records or record aggregates, the archivist successfully preserves the entirety of the record and the context in which it was created. This allows for better accessibility and improves authenticity. [20]

Physical maintenance is another key feature of preservation. There are many strategies to preserve archives properly: rehousing items in acid-free containers, storing items in climate controlled areas, and copying deteriorating items. [11]

Digital preservation

Digital preservation involves the implementation of policies, strategies, and actions in order to ensure that digitized documents remain accurate and accessible over time. Due to newly emerging technologies, archives began to expand and require new forms of preservation. Archival collections expanded to include new media such as microfilm, audiofiles, visualfiles, moving images, and digital documents. Many of these new types of media have a shorter life expectancy than paper. [11] Migration from older non-paper formats to newer non-paper formats is necessary for the preservation of digital media so they can remain accessible. [20]

Metadata is an important part of digital preservation as it preserves the context, usage, and migration of a digital record. Similarly to traditional preservation, metadata is required to preserve the authenticity and accessibility of a record. [20]

Information access

Preserved materials in digital archives can be accessed usually by specifying their metadata, or by content-based search such as full text search when using dedicated information retrieval approaches. These usually return results ranked in terms of their relevance to user queries. Novel retrieval methods for document archives can use other ranking factors such as contemporary relevance and temporal analogy. [21]

Critical archival studies

In 2002, the journal Archival Science published a series of articles that analyzed systems of power in archival practice, theory, and recordkeeping. [22] This approach was described in 2017 by Punzalan, Caswell, and Sangwand as "critical archival studies". [23] Critical archival studies applies critical theory to archival science, with the goal of developing and implementing archival practices that are more fully inclusive of matters pertaining to race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability. [23] For example, it includes documentation of racist acts and references past omissions of such. [23] There are synergies between critical archival studies and digital humanities, to work to resist oppression. [24]

Archival studies have focused renewed concern on recognition and representation of indigenous, community, and human rights archives. [25] Archival practice is increasingly alert to colonial and imperialist implications. [25] Since 2016, the concept of "symbolic annihilation" has been used to describe the disappearance of communities through systematic or implicit lack of representation or under-representation in archives. It was initially adapted into the archival literature by Caswell from feminist uses of symbolic annihilation. [26] This absence can also be found in archival policies as well as description and annotation practices. [26] Preservation and usage of accurate language and descriptions of community archives ensures that community values are not neglected, and contributes to critical archival discussions regarding omissions in historical documentation. [26]

Hughes-Watkins has demonstrated that mainstream archival institutions tend to preserve homogeneous, Eurocentric content within archival practice, with a significant lack of attention to other, diverse perspectives. [27]

Professional and advanced education

In 2002, the Society of American Archivists published guidelines for a graduate program in archival studies. [28] The guidelines were most recently revised and re-approved in 2016. [29]

Formal courses of study in archival science are available at the master's and doctoral level. A master's degree is typically a two-year professional program focusing on acquiring a knowledge base of archival skills (including digital records and access systems) [30] whereas a doctorate is more broad in scope and includes critical inquiry of its archival practices, with graduates typically preparing for careers in research and teaching. [31] Archival science students may have academic backgrounds in areas such as anthropology, economics, history, law, library science, museum studies or information science. [31]

Associations

Professional

Professional archivist associations seek to foster study and professional development:

Regional

Smaller professional regional associations provide more local professional development. These include the New England Archivists, Society of Rocky Mountain Archivists, Society of Ohio Archivists, Society of North Carolina Archivists, and Mid-Atlantic Regional Archives Conference.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archive</span> Accumulation of historical records

An archive is an accumulation of historical records or materials – in any medium – or the physical facility in which they are located.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digitization</span> Converting information into digital form

Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. The result is the representation of an object, image, sound, document, or signal obtained by generating a series of numbers that describe a discrete set of points or samples. The result is called digital representation or, more specifically, a digital image, for the object, and digital form, for the signal. In modern practice, the digitized data is in the form of binary numbers, which facilitates processing by digital computers and other operations, but digitizing simply means "the conversion of analog source material into a numerical format"; the decimal or any other number system can be used instead.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archivist</span> Professional who preserves information for long-term use

An archivist is an information professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to records and archives determined to have long-term value. The records maintained by an archivist can consist of a variety of forms, including letters, diaries, logs, other personal documents, government documents, sound or picture recordings, digital files, or other physical objects.

In library and archival science, digital preservation is a formal process to ensure that digital information of continuing value remains accessible and usable in the long term. It involves planning, resource allocation, and application of preservation methods and technologies, and combines policies, strategies and actions to ensure access to reformatted and "born-digital" content, regardless of the challenges of media failure and technological change. The goal of digital preservation is the accurate rendering of authenticated content over time.

In archival science, a fonds is a group of documents that share the same origin and that have occurred naturally as an outgrowth of the daily workings of an agency, individual, or organization. An example of a fonds could be the writings of a poet that were never published, or the records of an institution during a specific period.

Encoded Archival Description (EAD) is a standard for encoding descriptive information regarding archival records.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of library and information science</span> Overview of and topical guide to library science

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science:

A finding aid, in the context of archival science and archival research, is an organization tool, a document containing detailed and processed metadata and other information about a specific collection of records within an archive. Finding aids often consist of a documentary inventory and description of the materials, their source, and their structure. The finding aid for a fonds is usually compiled by the collection's entity of origin, provenance, or by an archivist during archival processing, and may be considered the archival science equivalent of a library catalog or a museum collection catalog. The finding aid serves the purpose of locating specific information within the collection. The finding aid can also help the archival repository manage their materials and resources.

Language documentation is a subfield of linguistics which aims to describe the grammar and use of human languages. It aims to provide a comprehensive record of the linguistic practices characteristic of a given speech community. Language documentation seeks to create as thorough a record as possible of the speech community for both posterity and language revitalization. This record can be public or private depending on the needs of the community and the purpose of the documentation. In practice, language documentation can range from solo linguistic anthropological fieldwork to the creation of vast online archives that contain dozens of different languages, such as FirstVoices or OLAC.

Archival processing is the act of surveying, arranging, describing, and performing basic preservation activities on the recorded material of an individual, family, or organization after they are permanently transferred to an archive. A person engaging in this activity is known as an archival processor, archival technician, or archivist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preservation (library and archive)</span> Set of activities aimed at prolonging the life of a record or object

In conservation, library and archival science, preservation is a set of preventive conservation activities aimed at prolonging the life of a record, book, or object while making as few changes as possible. Preservation activities vary widely and may include monitoring the condition of items, maintaining the temperature and humidity in collection storage areas, writing a plan in case of emergencies, digitizing items, writing relevant metadata, and increasing accessibility. Preservation, in this definition, is practiced in a library or an archive by a conservator, librarian, archivist, or other professional when they perceive a collection or record is in need of maintenance.

In archival science and archive administration, appraisal is a process usually conducted by members of the record-holding institution in which a body of records is examined to determine its value for that institution. It also involves determining how long this value will last. The activity is one of the central tasks of an archivist, to determine the archival value of specific records. When it occurs prior to acquisition, the appraisal process involves assessing records for inclusion in the archives. In connection with an institution's collecting policy, appraisal "represents a doorway into the archives through which all records must pass". Some considerations when conducting appraisal include how to meet the record-granting body's organizational needs, how to uphold requirements of organizational accountability, and how to meet the expectations of the record-using community.

Preservation metadata is item level information that describes the context and structure of a digital object. It provides background details pertaining to a digital object's provenance, authenticity, and environment. Preservation metadata, is a specific type of metadata that works to maintain a digital object's viability while ensuring continued access by providing contextual information, usage details, and rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archival research</span> Type of research using evidence from archival records

Archival research is a type of research which involves seeking out and extracting evidence from archival records. These records may be held either in collecting institutions, such as libraries and museums, or in the custody of the organization that originally generated or accumulated them, or in that of a successor body. Archival research can be contrasted with (1) secondary research, which involves identifying and consulting secondary sources relating to the topic of enquiry; and (2) with other types of primary research and empirical investigation such as fieldwork and experiment.

Howard Besser is a scholar of digital preservation, digital libraries, and preservation of film and video. He is Professor of Cinema Studies and the founding director of the NYU Moving Image Archiving and Preservation Program ("MIAP"), a graduate program in the Tisch School. Besser also worked as a Senior Scientist at New York University's Digital Library Initiative. He conducted extensive research in image databases, multimedia operation, digital library, and social and cultural influence of the latest Information Technology. Besser is a prolific writer and speaker, and has consulted with many governments, educational institutions, and arts agencies on digital preservation matters. Besser researched libraries' new technology, archives, and museums. Besser has been actively contributing at the international level to build metadata and upgrade the quality of the cultural heritage community. He predominantly, focused on image and multimedia databases; digital library aspects ; cultural and societal impacts of information technology, and developing new teaching methods through technology such as web-based instructions and distance learning. Besser was closely involved in development of the Dublin Core and the Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS), international standards within librarianship.

Respect des fonds, or le respect pour les fonds, is a principle in archival theory that proposes to group collections of archival records according to their fonds. It is one of several principles stemming from provenance that have guided archival arrangement and description from the late 19th century until the present day. It is similar to archival integrity, which dictates that "a body of records resulting from the same activity must be preserved as a group." It is also closely related to the idea of original order – the idea that archivists ought to maintain records using the creator's organizational system. However, respect des fonds differs from that other foundational sub-principle of provenance in its concern with the integrity of the collection or record group as a whole rather than the organization of materials within that collection or record group.

Original order is a concept in archival theory that a group of records should be maintained in the same order as they were placed by the record's creator. Along with provenance, original order is a core tenet of the archival concept of respect des fonds. A primary goal of keeping records in their original order is to preserve additional contextual information about the records' creator and the environment of their creation. Original order also encourages the archivist to remain neutral as opposed to applying any interpretation to the records.

"More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing" is a 2005 archival science article written by Mark A. Greene and Dennis Meissner that first appeared in the Fall/Winter 2005 issue of The American Archivist. The paper argues that traditional archival processing is too slow, and advocates for the use of minimal processing in order to reduce backlogs and provide access to archival collections as quickly as possible. The ideology presented in the article, abbreviated as MPLP, has since been widely adopted in modern archival theory with subsequent praise directed primarily towards the ability to increase user accessibility without prohibiting the option for future processing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural property documentation</span> Aspect of collections care

The documentation of cultural property is a critical aspect of collections care. As stewards of cultural property, museums collect and preserve not only objects but the research and documentation connected to those objects, in order to more effectively care for them. Documenting cultural heritage is a collaborative effort. Essentially, registrars, collection managers, conservators, and curators all contribute to the task of recording and preserving information regarding collections. There are two main types of documentation museums are responsible for: records generated in the registration process—accessions, loans, inventories, etc. and information regarding research on objects and their historical significance. Properly maintaining both types of documentation is vital to preserving cultural heritage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audiovisual archive</span>

In archives, the term "audiovisual" is frequently used generically to denote materials other than written documents. Films, videos, audio recordings, pictures, and other audio and visual media are collected in audiovisual archives. A vast amount of knowledge is included in audiovisual records, which are considered cultural treasures and must be preserved for future use. Print materials would not have the same reach across various audiences as audiovisual resources.

References

  1. ↑ "The Archival Paradigm—The Genesis and Rationales of Archival Principles and Practices". Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  2. ↑ "About records, archives and the profession". International Council on Archives. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
  3. ↑ Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Archival Science". A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2012-12-07.
  4. ↑ Duranti, Luciana; Heather MacNeil (January 1996). "The Protection of the Integrity of Electronic Records: An Overview of the UBC-MAS Research Project". Archivaria. 1 (42): 46–67. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
  5. 1 2 Weidling, T. (2013). "Den äldsta arkivläran: Jacob von Rammingens båda läroböcker i registratur- och arkivskötsel från 1571, samt en monografi om arkiv från 1632 av Baldassare Bonifacio" [The oldest archival science: Jacob von Rammingen's two manuals of registry and archival management from 1571, and a monography on archives from 1632 by Baldassare Bonifacio]. Scandinavian Journal of History (in Swedish). 38 (2): 270–271. doi:10.1080/03468755.2013.776405.
  6. ↑ "Foreword". Standards for Archival Description: A Handbook. Society of American Archivists. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  7. 1 2 Adrian Cunningham, "Archival Institutions", in Archives: Recordkeeping in Society, ed. Sue McKemmish et al. (Wagga Wagga, New South Wales: Charles Sturt University, Centre for Information Studies, 2005), pp. 21-22.
  8. ↑ Roe, Kathleen D. (2005). Arranging & Describing Archives & Manuscripts. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. p. 37.
  9. ↑ Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Rules for Archival Description". A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  10. ↑ Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Describing Archives: A Content Standard". A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Michèle V. Cloonan, "Preserving Records of Enduring Value," in Currents of Archival Thinking, ed. Terry Eastwood and Heather MacNeil (Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited, 2010), 69-88.
  12. 1 2 Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Metadata." A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  13. 1 2 Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Provenance". A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  14. 1 2 Gilliland-Swetland, Luke (1991). "The Provenance of a Profession: The Permanence of the Public Archives and Historical Manuscripts Traditions in American Archival History". The American Archivist . 54 (2): 160–175 [161]. doi: 10.17723/aarc.54.2.w42580v137053675 .
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Posner, Ernst (1940). "Some Aspects of Archival Development Since The French Revolution". The American Archivist . 3 (3): 159–172. doi: 10.17723/aarc.3.3.q64h3343h663402j .
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Douglas, Jennifer (2010). "Origins: Evolving Ideas about the Principle of Provenance," in Currents of Archival Thinking, ed. Terry Eastwood and Heather MacNeil (Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited), p. 23-43.
  17. 1 2 Posner (1940), p. 166.
  18. ↑ Cook, Terry (1997). "What is Past is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas Since 1898, and the Future Paradigm Shift". Archivaria. 43: 17–62.
  19. ↑ Pearce-Moses, Richard (2005). "Preservation". A Glossary of Archival and Records Terminology. Society of American Archivists. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  20. 1 2 3 Kate Cumming, "Metadata Matters," in Managing Electronic Records, ed. Julie McLeod and Catherine Hare (London: Facet Publishing, 2005) pp. 34-49.
  21. ↑ Mari Sato, Adam Jatowt, Yijun Duan, Ricardo Campos, Masatoshi Yoshikawa: Estimating Contemporary Relevance of Past News for Enhancing Search in Archival Collections, Proceedings of the 21tst ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL 2021), ACM Press, Illinois, USA (2021)
  22. ↑ "List of Contributors". Archival Science. 2: 161–163. 2002. doi:10.1023/A:1020827012752. S2CID   195292343 . Retrieved 2022-05-19.
  23. 1 2 3 Caswell, Michelle; Punzalan, Ricardo; Sangwand, T-Kay (2017-06-27). "Critical Archival Studies: An Introduction". Journal of Critical Library and Information Studies. 1 (2). doi: 10.24242/jclis.v1i2.50 .
  24. ↑ Sangwand, T-Kay; Christian-Lamb, Caitlin; Lindblad, Purdom (2018). "Bridging Justice Based Practices for Archives + Critical DH". DH2018. Retrieved 2020-02-09.
  25. 1 2 Sangwand, T.-Kay (2018-11-29). "Preservation is Political: Enacting Contributive Justice and Decolonizing Transnational Archival Collaborations". KULA: Knowledge Creation, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies. 2: 10. doi: 10.5334/kula.36 . ISSN   2398-4112. S2CID   158673749.
  26. 1 2 3 Caswell, Michelle; Cifor, Marika; Ramirez, Mario H (2016-06-01). ""To Suddenly Discover Yourself Existing": Uncovering the Impact of Community Archives". The American Archivist. 79 (1): 56–81. doi: 10.17723/0360-9081.79.1.56 . ISSN   0360-9081. S2CID   147802336.
  27. ↑ Hughes-Watkins, Lae'l (2018-05-16). "Moving Toward a Reparative Archive: A Roadmap for a Holistic Approach to Disrupting Homogenous Histories in Academic Repositories and Creating Inclusive Spaces for Marginalized Voices". Journal of Contemporary Archival Studies. 5 (1). ISSN   2380-8845.
  28. ↑ "Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies". Society of American Archivists. Archived from the original on 6 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  29. ↑ "Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies". www2.archivists.org. Society of American Archivists. 7 December 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  30. ↑ Wosh, Peter J.; Hajo, Cathy Moran; Katz, Esther (2012). "Teaching Digital Skills in an Archives and Public History Curriculum". In Hirsch, Brett D. (ed.). Digital Humanities Pedagogy (1 ed.). Open Book Publishers. p. 85. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjtt3.8. ISBN   978-1-909254-26-8 . Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  31. 1 2 Gilliland-Swetland, Anne J. (2000). "Archival Research: A "New" Issue for Graduate Education". The American Archivist. 63 (2): 259–260. doi: 10.17723/aarc.63.2.6226636045t48543 . ISSN   0360-9081. JSTOR   40294141.
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