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Arfajah were one of the commander of eleven corps of army sent by caliph Abu Bakar to quell rebelliun after prophet Muhammad passed away.[3] Arfajah also known as one of the first caliphate naval commander, as Abu Bakr dispatched Arfajah with Hudaifa bin Mihsan's corps to fight opponents of Islam in Oman.[4][5][6] as he was entrusted to lead the Azd Naval forces from Bahrain to invade Fars Province in order to stop Sassanid coastal incursions.[7] He later served as governor of Mosul during the reign of Caliph Umar.[8]
architectural achievement of Arfajah was the Mosul Grand Mosque, or also known as Umayyad Mosque as later during Umayyad Caliphate it rebuilt and expanded by Marwan II.[14][15] Arfajah was the first one in the Rashidun caliphate who implemented Amsar, an Islamic permanent garrison fortress with Caravanserai feature of praying room and camels stop inn which later repurposed into urbane settlement, trade route and administrative centers such as Basra, Mosul, and Haditha.
Early life
According to Ibn Hazm, His full Nisba line-age were Arfaja b. Harthama b. Abd-al-Uzza b. Zuhayr b. Thailbh b. Amr b. Sa`d b. Thailbh b. Kinanah al-Bariqi,[16] which then claimed that Bariq were descendant of Hud (prophet) (Eber)), with full Nisba: Ibn Uday Ibn Haritha Ibn Amr Mazikiee Ibn Aamr bin Haritha Algtarif bin Imru al-Qais Thailb bin Mazen Ibn Al-Azd Ibn Al-Ghoth Ibn Nabit Ibn Malik bin Zaid Ibn Kahlan Ibn Saba'a ( Sheba ) Ibn Yashjub Ibn Yarab Ibn Qahtan Ibn Hud (prophet) (Eber)).[17]
According to Ahmad Jawdat Pasha who quoted Waqidi, Arfajah grew up in wealthy family, and was known as an gifted orator. Arfajah also has powerful martial prowess as he is said to be skilled in sword fighting and equestrian methods, while also possesed good social skills.[18]
Arfajah preserved his position as Companions of the Prophet, as he met Muhammad in his lifetime.[19] which was attested by Umar ibn al Khattab, that Arfajah had met Muhammad at least once and profess Islam during the prophet's lifetime. He even also narrated a Hadith directly from Muhammad.[19]
In 633, Abu Bakr dispatched Arfaja bin Harthama and Hudhayfah al-Bariqi to Mahra[20] following the orders of Abu Bakr, then sent Ikrimah to march and join Arfajah, As Arfaja had not yet arrived, Ikrimah, instead of waiting for him, tackled the local rebels on his own. At Jairut, Ikrimah met two rebel armies preparing for battle. Here, he persuaded the weaker to embrace Islam and then joined up with them to defeat their opponents,[3] Then the event following was Arfajah and the caliphate armies continued their march to fight the remnants of Mahranite rebels in violent battles against the Mahranite rebels until they pacified the entire Mahra region.[21]
Having re-established Islam in Mahra, Ikrimah moved his corps to Abyan, where he rested his men and awaited further developments.[22] Until further instruction arrived for Arfaja and his Azd army to assist the Al Azdi Ruler, Abd Al-Juland and his brother Jayfar, who ruled the interior of the Oman peninsula who travelled to Medina in 632 to swear fealty to the Caliph Abu Bakr, who received him with pleasure.[23] The leader of the apostates of Oman was Laqit bin Malik Al-Azdi, known as 'the one with the crown', or Dhu'l Taj. A natural rival to the Julanda kings, he forced them into retreat before the army from Medina completed its arduous journey through the Rub Al Khali to reach the Oman peninsula.[23] Meeting up with the Madinan army, the forces of the Julanda were bolstered by tribes from the region who deserted Laqit.[23] Then the Omanite and Azd allied army in turn attacked the Sasanian governor Maskan and defeated Maskan's forces at Damsetjerd in Sohar, killing Maskan.[24] Leaving behind all their silver and gold, the Sasanians evacuated the country.[23] The allied forces of Arfajah and Julandi sibling fought the rebels under Laqit in the final engagement of Battle of Dibba, where the rebel leader placing his men's families behind their lines in order to encourage them to fight harder. However, the Medinan army prevailed following the arrival of reinforcements, the Beni Abdul Kais and Beni Najia tribes who had formed part of the Caliph's army but who had been delayed during the long journey from Medina.[25] After the rebellion of Laqit were put down, Hudhayfah ibn Muhsin stayed in the area to consolidate the place, while Ikrimah commence mop up operations against remnants of rebels left in Mahra, while Arfajah tasked to escort the spoils of war brought to Caliphate citadel, Medina.[26]
This section may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in Arabic. (November 2021)Click [show] for important translation instructions.
Machine translation like DeepL or Google Translate is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.
Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 342 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization.
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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Qeshm Island that Arfajah conquered from the coast of Oman.
In the year 12 AH, Arfajah led the first Arab-Islamic naval invasions in history, and conquered a large number of islands in the Gulf of Oman.[28]Ahmed Jawdat Pasha, who narrated from the text of Al-Waqidi, pointed that Arfajah did not have trouble to raise an army and ships which needed to mount this naval invasion without the support of central caliphate, due to his notably wealthiness and powerful influence of followers from within his clan. Ahmed Jawdat further narrated that the background of Arfajah naval expedition from Al-Waqidi's book that Arfajah were filled by impetuous Jihad spirit And he disregarded the advice of Al-Faruq, boarded the ships and marched for the conquest in the Sea of Oman.[18] However, Jawdat mistook as he though this campaign occurred during Umar caliphate, while in reality it is occurred during caliphate of Abu Bakr.[29] Tabari narrated that as caliph Abu Bakar learned Arfajah acted without his consent, he immediately dismissed Arfajah.[30]
Campaign under Muthanna
As Khalid ibn al-Walid transferred to Levant, Arfajah marched to rendezvouz with the army under al-Muthanna ibn Haritha,[31] who are now being in charge of Rashidun forces in Iraq, and served under him in the victorious Battle of Namaraq and the Battle of Kaskar. However the Muthanna and Arfaja experienced major drawback in the Battle of the Bridge,[31] where they suffered heavy losses.[32] responded to this calamity, caliph Umar reacted to sent the contingent of Bajila tribe under the leadership of Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali for reinforcement. although there is some minor quarrel between Jarir and Arfajah, in the end they are agree to joint their forces under Muthanna to fight the Persians.[33] then Arfajah and Muthanna, have been replenished by Bajila host of Jarir, marched toward Buwaib, where they fought the Sassanid again, in the victorious Battle of Buwaib, where they even succeeded slaying the Sassanid general, Mihran.[34] which also called by Tabari and Ali ibn al-Athir as "day of tenth" (Yawm al-Ashir), due to the intensity of the battle where each one of Muslim soldiers managed to kill ten of Sassanid soldier.[30][35] After the battle, Arfajah march to Hirah, and recapture the city, which has been fallen to the Sassanid before after the Battle of the Bridge.[36]
Later, in the year 12 AH, Bahrain were suffered from constant naval raids by Persians.[37] Arfajah, who just conquered the town of Sawad immediately goes to Bahrain to reinforce his superior in Bahrain, al-Ala al Hadrami.[38]
In the end of the year 13 AH , al Ala ibn Hadrami commanded Arfajah started sending ships and boats for further maritime expedition,[4] as they areordered by caliph Umar to detach himself from Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha while they are in Hirah.[6] This time, Arfajah, under al Ala, were attacking the island of Darin (Qatif)[ar] to exterminate the feeling apostate rebels who flee from mainland of Arabian peninsula toward that island. the Muslim armies began attacking the capital of Darin and killing the rebels there, pacified the eastern Arab coasts.[39] Then, on their own initiative, Arfajah, under instruction from al Ala, started to sending ships towards Sassanid coast in Tarout Island. This continued Until Arfajah reached the port of Borazjan, where according to Ibn Sa'd Arfajah sunk many Persian navy ships in a battle,[40]Shuaib Al Arna'ut and al-Arqsoussi recorded the words of Al-Dhahabi regarding Arfaja naval campaign during this occasion: "...Arfaja sent to the coast of Persia, destroying many(enemy) ships, and conquered the island and build mosque".[5] It is said by historians this Arfajah operations in the coast of Arabian Gulf secured the water ways for Muslims army and paving the way for the later Muslim conquest of Pars.[41] Ibn Balkhi wrote that Arfajah write his progress to al Ala, who in turn inform to 'Umar.[42] This satisfy 'Umar, who in turn instructed al Ala to further resupply Arfajah who still continued fighting off coast,[43] which Arfajah responds continued the naval campaigns the mainland of Fars.[44] The coastal incursions commenced by Arfajah spans from Jazireh-ye Shif to an Island,[45] which identified by Ahmad ibn Mājid as Lavan Island Then continued to until they reached Kharg Island.[46] Poursharianti recorded this second Arfajah naval adventure were ended with the annexation of Kharg, in month of Safar, 14 AH.[47]
I have provided you with Arfajah ibn Harthamah, and he is a Mujahid and brillant strategist, so if he comes to you, ask his consultation and keep him near (to you)".
However, this time caliph 'Umar disliked Arfajah unnecessarily dragged sea adventures, as the naval forces of Arfajah were originally dispatched to support Utbah ibn Ghazwan to conquer Ubulla.[44] Shortly, 'Umar instructed to dismiss Arfajah from his command and reassign al-Ala ibn Hadrami as his replacement.[44] although, Donnes said in his version that al-Ala passed away before he could assume the position.[44] Nevertheless, the caliph then later instructed Arfajah to bring 700 soldiers from Bahrain to immediately reinforce Utbah who is marching towards Al-Ubulla.[49] Arfajah manage to rendezvouz with Utbah later in the location that will became a Basra city, and together they besiege Ubulla until they managed to capture the port city.[50]Abu Mikhnaf reported in Ali Ibn Athir book, al Kamal, that the conquest of Ubulla by Arfajah and Utbah were bloodless, as the Sassanid garrison somehow terrified by the besiegers so they gave up fighting and leave Ubulla undefended, allowing Utbah and Arfajah to capture it. Then after they take Ubulla and used it as headquarters, Utbah and Arfajah commence operation in south-eastern Iraq, and capturing Maysan Governorate.
Later, Arfajah also witnessed the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas. Arfajah marched from Basra to Join Sa'd before the batle, while also brought 400 to 700 Azd cavalry under him, which he brought earlier in the conquest of Ubulla.[51] Arfajah then placed under the banner of al Mughira ibn Shu'bah, whose company in total were about 1,500-1,800 soldiers.[51] As the Muslims has emerged victorious from the hard battle in Qadisiyah, they immediately marched towards the Sassanid capital, which are nicknamed by the Arabs as Al-Mada'in.[52] Sa'd lead the Muslim army to cross the river and engaged in the besiege the capital, until Yazdegerd III fled and the capital fallen to the Muslims.[53] Sa'd and his army, including Arfajah stay for while in the conquered capital of Sassanid and manage to establish base there.[54]
First Mosul governance
Later, at the month of Safar in the year 16 A.H., the supreme commander of eastern theater, Sa'd ibn abi Waqqas, was informed that the people of Mosul had gathered in Tikrit with a man from the Byzantine called Al-Antiqa.[10] Sa'd then wrote to Umar regarding the issue of the people of Mosul who had gathered in Tikrit with Al-Antiqa. The caliph ordered him to take initiative, then Sa'd appoint Abdullah ibn Al-Mu'tam as the commander of the operation. Abdullah ibn Mu'tam arranged the formation in manner that he appoint Rabi'i bin Al-Afkal as vanguard, Al-Harith ibn Hassan on the right wing, Furat ibn Hayyan on the left wing, while Hani ibn Qais, and Arfajah bin Harthama on the cavalry.[10] The Rashidun cavalry which led by Arfajah were the first to arrive in Tikrit, where they facing the Byzantine army allied with Iyad and Taghlib ibn Wa'il tribe.[55] After they finished with Tikrit, Ibn al-Mu'ta'm sent Rabi'i ibn al-Afkal and Arfajah to subdue Nineveh and Mosul, before the news about Byzantine under Antiqa defeat in Tikrit spreading wide.[56] then both Arfajah and Ibn al Mu'ta'm succeeded to force surrender from both city and subject both to Jizya tribute.[57]
However, regarding Mosul there is conflicting reports that Khalifah ibn Khayyat recorded the one who subdue Mosul was instead Iyad ibn Ghanm, governor of Jazira, as Jazira were adjacent to Mosul.[58] The alternative explanation were offered by Baladhuri who giving a reconcilliary explanation that Arfajah were indeed the first conqueror of Mosul, while Mosul rebelled sometimes later, which then recaptured for the second time now by Iyad ibn Ghanm.[59] However, Baladhuri admit that his version were narrated through unreliable chains..[59]
Due to instruction from caliph Umar, Arfaja Al-Bariqi set up a garrison (Amsar) in Mosul,[60] and was appointed Wali (governor) there,[61][62] particularly managing the revenue.[63] The area of Mosul was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later, when the area was settled and a mosque was erected, Umar ordered the resettlement of the 4000 settlers to Mosul. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks, instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region and other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Harthama, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population. He used it as his headquarters for the northern military operations. Utba consolidated his position in Tikrit and later advanced to Bajurmi and Shahrazour where his troops settled there. At Mosul Arfaja at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.[64] Until this moment, Ibn Khaldun has remarked the rivalry between Arfajah with Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali over leadership of the Bajila tribe army.[65]
Founding Basra
View of Basra in circa 1695, by Dutch cartographer Isaak de Graaf
After a short tenure of his governance, Arfajah instructed by caliph Umar to march with his 700 Azd soldiers to march towards the location which will be known in the future as Basra, while delegate the governance of Mosul to al Harith ibn Hassan.[66] Arfajah and Utbah then founded the Amsar(garrison city) which named as Basra, where the military encampment in the location gradually supported with further permanent structures and growing into large settlement,[67] as Arfajah instructed his soldiers to construct seven tribal complexes which can fit the 700 garrison troops.[68] Then Arfajah instructed to built houses of mud bricks, plaster and mud to replace the camps.[69] As the buildings stands, Arfajah and other army leaders such as Mujazah ibn Thawr as-Sadusi, and Arfajah fellow tribesmen, Hudhayfah ibn Muhsin, started to fill the complex with tribes of Azd, Tamim, and tribe of Sadus ibn Shayban.[70]
Arfajah then designed seven dams of adobe in Basra, two in the settlement of Al-Khuraybah, one in az-Zabuqah, two in Banu Tamim, and the last two in al-Azd tribe settlement[71]
Assisting al Ala al Hadrami in Fars
In 17 AH, al Ala commencing a naval operation towards Fars without permission from the caliph.[72] However, the three forces sent by al Ala were beaten badly by the Sassanids and stranded overseas as their ships and boats were burned by the Sassanids.[73] Some of the ships managed to arrive into mainlands of Arabia and informed al Ala, who in turn asking for assistance from the caliph.[74] 'Umar responded in the month of Shaban of 17 AH, Umar wrote to Utbah to mobilize army forces to assist Al-Ala Al-Hadrami to the province of Persia and set sail by sea.[75]
In response, Utbah sent an army of 12,000 fighters, which led by Asim ibn Amr al-Tamimi, Arfajah bin Harthama, Ahnaf ibn Qais, and Abu Sabrah bin Abi Rahm.[76][77] In this rescue operation, Arfajah advising Utbah a strategy to sent the forces of Abu Sabrah alone to the coastal area, in order to bait the Sassanid forces while hiding their main forces beyond the sight of the enemy and even the isolated Muslim forces that they intend to rescue. Then as Sassanid army saw Abu Sabrah came with only few soldiers, they immediately gave chase as they though it is the whole Muslim reinforcement soldiers. At this certain moment, Utbah commence Arfajah final plan to commit his main forces to flank the unexpected Sassanid force, causing heavy casualties on them and routing them, thus this operation of relieving al Ala Hadrami mariners which has being posed to danger of being isolated in the Persian soil were succeeded.[78][79]
Then as Utbah marched his army to return to Basra, he himself passed away while performing Hajj in 17 AH during the month of Dhu al-Hijjah.[3] Arfajah now acted as the administrator of Basra as Utbah passed away[80]
After the Muslims landed in Basra in Dhul-Hijjah in the year 16 AH, the Islamic army was subjected to Persian raids led by Hormuzan from the city of Ahvaz which bordering Basra.[81] Before his natural death, Utbah send an army which commanded by Arfajah, Hudhaifah bin Muhsin , Mujaza bin Thawr, Husayn ibn Al Qa'qa, Ashim ibn Amr, and Salma ibn Al Qain, who lead in 700 soldiers each.[81] These Basra contingents were further reinforced by garrison of Kufa, governed by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, before the battle against Hormuzan.[82] Before they engage Hormuzan, Arfajah and the Muslim armies marches to the vicinity of the area, to subdue several places including Kashkar, to cut off supply route and reinforcements for the Sassanids in Ahvaz.[83] Arfajah managed to defeat the Hormuzan in this battle and the latter sued for peace.[82]
In 18 AH, Arfajah began to the conquest of Khuzestan, as they then marching towards Ramhormoz.[54] Arfajah marched on with Al-Bara' ibn Malik, Majza' bin Thawr, and reinforcements from Kufah led by Abu Sabrah ibn Abi Rahm,[54] until they rendezvouz with the forces from Kufa led by Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin and merged their forces to face Hormuzan.[84] Then they later defeated Hormuzan, who led the Sassanid resistance before in Ahvaz. Hormuzan then flee from Ramhormoz and escape towards Shushtar, which then chased by the Muslim armies that ended in the lengthy Siege of Shushtar, which is where Hormuzan finally taken captive.[83]
Arfajah showing his energy after he was appointed for the second time as governor of Mosul, as he built four new districts of Arab Muslim soldiers and their families in both in Mosul,[87] In addition, Arfajah arranged fortifications in frontiers delegated soldiers and men to them to protect the borders of the caliphate territory.
In year 25 AH, Arfajah choose a small village near Nineveh in the eastern bank of Tigris to built new garrison city,[12][88] which later known as city of Haditha Mosul(new Mosul),[89] that in the future will be simply known as city of Haditha. These garrison cities under Arfajah became main headquarters and supply route for the army that were sent to Muslim conquest of Armenia andMuslim conquest of Azerbaijan.[88]
Later, in year 26 AH, as the caliphate under Uthman ibn al-Affan annexed the city Erbil, Arfajah handled the affair with Kurds inhabitants in the city, by facilitating dialogues with them, started to built Mosque and tasking the Quran to be promoted in the city.[90] While also setting up armed forces in this area to control security and Kharaj revenue.[91]
In the year 29 AH The next wave of Arab Muslim settlers arrived in Iraq under leadership of Abdallah ibn Amir, the governor of Basra at that time.[3] This forces were instructed by caliph Uthman to initiate the Muslim conquest of Sistan and Muslim conquest of Khorasan.[3] Thus to assist their conquest, Arfajah sent out settler contingents numbered 4,000 soldiers came from the tribe of Azd, Kindah, Tayy, and Abdul Qays.[92] Then, as those soldiers returned to Mosul after the conquest, Arfajah host these soldiers his jurisdiction cities of Mosul and Haditha, while sent them to commence routine raids against remaining Sassanid elements, while maintain Ribat military patrols on the borders.[93]
For the rest of Arfajah tenure in Mosul, Mosul became one of the most important city in Iraq that were immediately filled by immigrant Arab soldiers, and non-Arab Arameans and Persians, who also poured into the city in large numbers,[94] as the settlements within Arfajah jurisdictions was growing and extended between the borders of Euphrates Region in the north towards Kufa in the south.[95] Thus, it became one of the fastest growing urban, administrative and economic centers in Caliphate.[94]
Arfajah ruled Mosul until his death in 34 AH/654 AD
Legacy
Great mosque (Masjid Jami) of Mosul which designed by Arfajah.
Mahmoud Sheet Khattab[ar] viewed that Arfajah were underrated hero who only gained small attention in history, despite the fact he was the first Muslim Arab leader who lead the battle on the sea.[96] however, his contribution for Islamic naval history were doubtless, as Mahmoud further remarked that naval warfare before Arfajah were still uncommon concept for majority of Arabs.[96] Mahmoud also spots another underrated attention toward Arfajah for his part for the overall conquest of Persia, where he gained small attention, despite Arfajah, by any means, has marked huge contributions for it.[96]
Ibn al-Kalbi said that Arfajah were the first who built Amsar, or Islamic fortess garrison with Caravanserai feature, that accomodated the settlements of Muslim soldiers in the annexed territories permanently and also setting up the public facilites and Mosques in said Amsar.[11]
Arfajah also known being the first architect of the great Umayyad mosque of Mosul, which later further expanded and rebuilt by Marwan ibn Muhammad during the era of Umayyad Caliphate.[14][15] In modern era, Nineveh Governorate municipality announced in 18 February 2019 that reconstruction of the mosque was resumed, albeit damages caused by ISIS, with a 50 million dollar grant from the United Arab Emirates. Completion date was not set.[97]
Hurqus & Iraqi Kharijites
It is said that Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di[ar], more famously known as Dhu Khuwaissirah at-Tamimi, a Tamim tribe chieftain, first generation Kharijites[98] and veteran of the Battle of Hunayn were participated among one of the Arab settler hosts which brought by Arfajah during Conquest of Khuzestan, Hurqus participation recorded particularly when he was sent by Rashidun army superiors to defeat Hormuzan in 638 at Ahvaz (known as Hormizd-Ardashir in modern era), and forced the city to pay jizya (poll-tax).[99]
Hurqus were known to protested against prophet Muhammad policy during Hunayn, and being prophecied by the latter that he will revolting against Caliphate later. During the reign of Uthman, long time after Arfajah passed away, Hurqus was one of the ringleaders from Basra that conspired to assassinate Uthman.[100] During the Caliphate of Ali, Hurqus were among those who fight him in the Battle of Nahrawan. Despite being suppressed by Ali, remnants of Hurqus hosts of Kharijites survived and would later influenced the splinter sects of Azariqa, Sufriyyah, and the Najdat radical sects that will plagued the entire history of Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad, and Abbasid with endemic rebellions.
Another troublesome Kharijite embryos that also came to Iraq under Arfajah were the ones that hail from Bajila tribe,[101] Arfajah had many problems in his rule with this tribe,[102] that according to Sayf ibn Umar, Arfajah even need to place his Azd tribesmens among the Bajalis settlement to keep them in check, as the Bajalis often quarrelled and inciting problems.[103] It is appeared that the Bajilas at first has followed Arfajah from Omani at certain point during the early phase of the Conquest of Persia,[104] Before Arfajah abandon them after the conquest of Ubulla, and relinquish the leadership of Bajalis to Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali[ar; id] in the instruction of Caliph Umar, who then further instructed the Bajalis to move toward Kufa.[105] From this tribe, Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi has rise in the era of Ali, to form the Ibāḍiyya Wahb sect, that even survived up to 20th century modern era in Oman.[106]
The Kharijites sects, believed by most scholars of Islam started by Hurqus, were one of the most radical splinter sect in Islam that does not have qualm to slaughter and seize the wealth of other Muslims whom they view were not adherent enough to Islamic teaching, while accusing the incumbent authority with most extreme form of takfir(excommunication from Islam).[106] The Kharijites were collectively called as Haruriyya/Haruri, as their first open rebellion against the authority in history occurred during their gathering in a village named al-Haruri.[106]
Appraisal
Mahmoud Sheet Khattab, an Iraqi minister, military commander, historian and writer (1919 - 1998), noted that Arfajah was fine example of the rare Arab courage, that even after the devastating defeat in the Battle of Bridge, caliph Umar continue to trust him.[9] Mahmoud also praised Arfajah as one of the best warriors under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas during the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and after Siege of Ctesiphon, as Mahmoud remarked his strong will and mentality that keep his work ethic, despite suffered setback once in the Battle of the Bridge, while also praising his innovation of naval warfare among Muslim Arabs.[9]
Caliph Umar praise Arfajah as military strategy expert at one time and urged Utbah ibn Ghazwan, the first governor of Basra, to rely on his counsel.[48] and indeed, Utbah known to depends heavily on Arfajah skill for the matters of both military and administration during his tenure in Iraq.[57] 20th century Syrian jurist, Ali Al-Tantawi, in his book praised Arfajah for his decisiveness in crucial moments.[107] While Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in his biography remarks the charismatic leadership of Arfajah as his presence can raise the morale of his soldiers.
Aside from his military skills, Utbah were also praised for his civil administrations for his founding of city of Basra, and his administration of Mosul after the conquest, as President of Mosul University, Sa'id Al-Diwaji remarked: "...(Arfajah) Al-Barqi was a person who has a passion for organization, urbanization, urban planning, and persuade the Arabs to reside in conquered lands, especially the one like Mosul..."[13]
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. The third caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, Uthman ibn Affan, was also a member of the Umayyad clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of al-Sham, who became the sixth caliph after the end of the First Fitna in 661. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the Second Fitna, and power eventually fell into the hands of Marwan I from another branch of the clan. The region of Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital.
Uthman ibn Affan, also spelled by the Turkish and Persian rendering Osman, was a second cousin, son-in-law and notable companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as the third of the Rāshidun, or "Rightly Guided Caliphs". Born into a prominent Meccan clan, Banu Umayya of the Quraysh tribe, he played a major role in early Islamic history, and is known for having ordered the compilation of the standard version of the Quran. When Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab died in office aged 59/60 years, Uthman, aged 64/65 years, succeeded him and was the second-oldest to rule as Caliph.
ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, also known as Umar or Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph. He was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history. He was a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert Muslim jurist known for his pious and just nature, which earned him the epithet al-Farooq.
The Rashidun Caliphs, often simply called the Rashidun, are the first four caliphs who led the Muslim community following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. The reign of these caliphs, called the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), is considered in Sunni Islam to have been 'rightly guided'.
Kufa, also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about 170 kilometres (110 mi) south of Baghdad, and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Currently, Kufa and Najaf are joined into a single urban area that is mostly commonly known to the outside world as 'Najaf'.
The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran, was carried out by the Rashidun Caliphate from 633 to 654 AD and led to the fall of the Sassanid Empire as well as the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion.
The Azd or Al-Azd is one of the largest Arab tribes which descended from the Sabaeans.
The Ridda Wars, were a series of military campaigns launched by the Caliph Abu Bakr against rebel Arabian tribes during 632 and 633, just after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Many rebels followed either Musaylimah, Tulayha, Sajjah, Laqit ibn Malik or Aswad Ansi, all of whom claimed to be prophets. Some rebels said that they had submitted to Muhammad as the prophet of Allah, but owed nothing to Abu Bakr. The rebel tribes were defeated and forced back into the control of the caliphate. A detailed reconstruction of the events is complicated by the frequently contradictory and tendentious accounts found in primary sources.
Abū Saʿīd al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufra al-Azdī was an Arab general from the Azd tribe who fought in the service of the Rashidun, Umayyad and Zubayrid caliphs between the mid-640s and his death. He served successive terms as the governor of Fars (685–686), Mosul, Arminiya and Adharbayjan (687–688) and Khurasan (698–702). Al-Muhallab's descendants, known as the Muhallabids, became a highly influential family, many of whose members held high office under various Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, or became well-known scholars.
Umar was the second Rashidun Caliph and reigned during 634-644. Umar's caliphate is notable for its vast conquests, aided by brilliant field commanders, he was able to incorporate present day Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt, and part of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and south western Pakistan into the Caliphate. During his reign, the Byzantines lost more than three fourths of their territory and in Persia, the Sassanid Empire ceased to exist.
The Rashidun Caliphate was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs (successors) of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs. This term is not used in Shia Islam, as Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs legitimate.
The Rashidun army was the core of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. The army is reported to have maintained a high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, granting them successive victories in their various campaigns.
Al-Qaʿqāʿ ibn ʿAmr ibn Mālik al-Tamimī was an Arab Muslim commander and general in the Rashidun army, he belonged to the tribe of Banu Tamim. He and his tribe converted to Islam possibly during the time of Ahnaf ibn Qais. He is known as a successful Military Commander who took part in two important victorious battles in early Muslim Conquest, the Battle of Yarmouk against the Byzantine Empire and the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah against the Sassanian Empire which was led by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas. The Caliph Abu Bakr praised him as an equal to eleven thousand men so in return the caliph predecessor, caliph Umar only sent him and a handful bodyguards as reinforcement to Al-Qadissiyah as the first wave as reinforcement. making him one of the most Illustrious military figures in that era.
Muslim conquest of Khorasan was the last phase of the heavy war between the Rashidun caliphate against Sassanid Empire.
Amṣar, singular miṣr, are the 'garrison towns' or settlements that were established by Muslim warriors in conquered lands, in the first centuries of Islam. The first were created under Caliph Omar during his reign from 634-644 AD. Many of these garrisons attracted civilians and became towns.
Abu Musa Abd Allah ibn Qays al-Ash'ari, better known as Abu Musa al-Ash'ari was a companion of Muhammad and an important figure in early Islamic history. He was at various times governor of Basra and Kufa and was involved in the early Muslim conquest of Persia.
The Siege of Ctesiphon took place from January to March, 637 between the forces of Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate. Ctesiphon, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, was one of the great cities of Persia, the imperial capital of the Parthian and Sassanid Empires. The Muslims managed to capture Ctesiphon ending the Persian rule over Mesopotamia.
Al-Jazira, also known as Jazirat Aqur or Iqlim Aqur, was a province of the Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, spanning at minimum most of Upper Mesopotamia, divided between the districts of Diyar Bakr, Diyar Rabi'a and Diyar Mudar, and at times including Mosul, Arminiya and Adharbayjan as sub-provinces. Following its conquest by the Muslim Arabs in 639/40, it became an administrative unit attached to the larger district of Jund Hims. It was separated from Hims during the reigns of caliphs Mu'awiya I or Yazid I and came under the jurisdiction of Jund Qinnasrin. It was made its own province in 692 by Caliph Abd al-Malik. After 702, it frequently came to span the key districts of Arminiya and Adharbayjan along the Caliphate's northern frontier, making it a super-province. The predominance of Arabs from the Qays/Mudar and Rabi'a groups made it a major recruitment pool of tribesmen for the Umayyad armies and the troops of the Jazira played a key military role under the Umayyad caliphs in the 8th century, peaking under the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, until the toppling of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in 750.
The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 8th-13th centuries according to the political scientist John M. Hobson. It is commonly believed that Mu‘awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan was the first planner and establisher of the Islamic navy, Although the first Islamic naval expedition in history took place in AH 17/638 CE during the caliphate of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was led by al-‘Ala Ibn al-Hadrami, governor of Bahrain, against Persia; it ended with a trapped Islamic army nearby Istakhr.
Mujaz'ah ibn Thawr al-Sadūsi, was a Muslim army commander and a companion of the Prophet who hailed from the clan of Sadus, a branch of the Banu Shayban tribe. Mujaz'ah was said have attended 80 military battles during his life. He died during the Siege of Shushtar (641/642), in a battle with the Sassanian commander Hormuzan, although other sources reported that he was slain during the campaign in Basra.
1 2 الجيش والسلاح, المجلد 4[The Army and the Weapon , Volume 4/Volume 4 of al-Jaysh wa-al-silāḥ The]. University of Michigan. 1988. p.52. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
↑ al Asqalani, Ibn Hajar. "الإصابة - ابن حجر - ج ٧ - الصفحة ١٨٥"[Al Ansab- Ibn Hajar - part 7 - page 185]. Shia Online library. Shia Online library. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
1 2 Bashamil, Muhammad Ahmad (1985). القادسية و معارك العراق[Qadisiyah and the battles of Iraq]. Dar Al-Turath Library. p.580. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
↑ Ibn Athir, Ali. "الكامل في التاريخ"[al Kamal fi Tarikh; page 546]. Al-Islamiyyah. al Islamiyyah. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
↑ Ibn-ʻAbd-al-Ḥakam, Abu-ʼl-Qāsim ʻAbd-ar-Raḥmān Ibn-ʻAbdallāh (1975). دراسات عن إبن عبد الحكم[Studies of Ibn Abd al Hakam]. Library of Cairo. p.70. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
1 2 Shuhailat, Ali; al-Hamdani, Abdul Aziz Ilyas (2011). مختصر تاريخ العراق (تاريخ العراق القديم) 1-6 ج4[Brief History of Iraq (Ancient History of Iraq) 1-6 Part 4]. Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية. p.381. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
Sergani, Ragheb (2006). "موقعة الجسر". التاريخ الإسلامي دون تشويه أو تزوير. التاريخ الإسلامي دون تشويه أو تزوير. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
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