Arthropods in culture

Last updated
Crayfish and Two Shrimps by Utagawa Hiroshige, 1835-1845 Brooklyn Museum - Crayfish and Two Shrimps - Utagawa Hiroshige (Ando).jpg
Crayfish and Two Shrimps by Utagawa Hiroshige, 1835-1845

Arthropods play many roles in human culture, the social behaviour and norms in human societies transmitted through social learning, [1] including as food, in art, in stories, and in mythology and religion. Many of these aspects concern insects, which are important both economically and symbolically, from the work of honeybees to the scarabs of Ancient Egypt. Other arthropods with cultural significance include crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters, and crayfish, which are popular subjects in art, especially still lifes, and arachnids such as spiders and scorpions, whose venom has medical applications. The crab and the scorpion are astrological signs of the zodiac.

Contents

Overview

Gold plaques embossed with winged bee goddesses, perhaps the Thriai, found at Camiros Rhodes, dated to the 7th century B.C. Plaque bee-goddess BM GR1860.4-123.4.jpg
Gold plaques embossed with winged bee goddesses, perhaps the Thriai, found at Camiros Rhodes, dated to the 7th century B.C.

Culture consists of the social behaviour and norms found in human societies and transmitted through social learning. Cultural universals in all human societies include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers physical expressions such as technology, architecture and art, whereas immaterial culture includes principles of social organization, mythology, philosophy, literature, and science. [1] This article describes the roles played by arthropods in human culture.

The arthropods are a phylum of animals with jointed legs; they include the insects, arachnids such as spiders, myriapods, and crustaceans. [2] Insects play many roles in culture including their direct use as food, [3] in medicine, [4] for dyestuffs, [5] and in science, where the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster serves as a model organism for work in genetics and developmental biology. [6]

As food

Crayfish party in Haringe Castle, Sweden 1991. Kraftskiva, Haringe slott, 1991.jpg
Crayfish party in Häringe Castle, Sweden 1991.

Crustaceans are an important source of food, providing nearly 10,700,000  tons in 2007; the vast majority of this output is of decapods: crabs, lobsters, shrimps, crayfish, and prawns. Over 60% by weight of all crustaceans caught for consumption are shrimp and prawns, and nearly 80% is produced in Asia, with China alone producing nearly half the world's total. Non-decapod crustaceans are not widely consumed, with only 118,000 tons of krill being caught, despite krill having one of the greatest biomasses on the planet. [7] [8]

Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus , accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus , several species in the genus Chionoecetes , the blue crab ( Callinectes sapidus ), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus , the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata , each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually. [9]

Lobsters are caught using baited, one-way traps with a colour-coded marker buoy to mark cages. Lobster is fished in water between 2 and 900 metres (1 and 500 fathoms), although some lobsters live at 3,700 metres (2,000 fathoms). Cages are of plastic-coated galvanised steel or wood. A lobster fisher may tend as many as 2,000 traps. Around 2000, owing to overfishing and high demand, lobster aquaculture expanded. [10] As of 2008, no lobster aquaculture operation had achieved commercial success, mainly because lobsters eat each other (cannibalism) and the growth of the species is slow. [11]

Eighty percent of the world's nations eat insects of 1,000 to 2,000 species. [12] [13] Insects used as food around the world include crickets, cicadas, grasshoppers, ants, various beetle grubs (such as mealworms, the larvae of the darkling beetle), [14] and various species of caterpillar (such as bamboo worms, mopani worms, silkworms and waxworms).

Cooked tarantula spiders are a delicacy in Cambodia. Fried spiders Skuon Cambodia.jpg
Cooked tarantula spiders are a delicacy in Cambodia.

Arachnids such as spiders, scorpions, or mite are also used as food worldwide. [15] Fried tarantula spiders are considered a delicacy in Cambodia, [16] and by the Piaroa Indians of southern Venezuela – provided the highly irritant hairs, the spiders' main defence system, are removed first. [17]

In science and engineering

Insects feature in a variety of ways in biomimicry, where for example the cooling system of termite mounds has been imitated in architecture. [18]

Spider venoms may be a less polluting alternative to conventional pesticides, as they are deadly to insects but the great majority are harmless to vertebrates. Australian funnel web spiders are a promising source, as most of the world's insect pests have had no opportunity to develop any immunity to their venom, and funnel web spiders thrive in captivity and are easy to "milk". It may be possible to target specific pests by engineering genes for the production of spider toxins into viruses that infect species such as cotton bollworms. [19]

Because spider silk is both light and strong, attempts are being made to produce it in goats' milk and in the leaves of plants, by means of genetic engineering. [20] [21]

In medicine

The Ch'ol Maya use a beverage created from the tarantula Brachypelma vagans for a condition they term 'tarantula wind', the symptoms of which include chest pain, asthma and coughing. The peptide GsMtx-4, found in the venom, has been studied for possible use in cardiac arrhythmia, muscular dystrophy, and glioma. [22] Possible medical uses for other spider venoms have been investigated for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia, [23] Alzheimer's disease, [24] strokes, [25] and erectile dysfunction. [26]

In folklore, mythology and religion

The constellation of Cancer, the crab, from Urania's Mirror, c. 1825 Sidney Hall - Urania's Mirror - Cancer.jpg
The constellation of Cancer, the crab, from Urania's Mirror, c. 1825
Moche ceramic spider, c. 300 AD Aranamuseolarco.jpg
Moche ceramic spider, c. 300 AD

Arthropods appear in folklore, in mythology, [27] and in religion. [28] Since Insects in mythology and in religion are covered elsewhere, this section focuses on other arthropods.

Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. [29] The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, [30] and often depicted crabs in their art. [31] In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories , The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. [32]

In the Japanese fairy tale "My Lord Bag of Rice", the warrior Fujiwara no Hidesato slays a giant centipede, Ōmukade, to help a dragon princess. [33]

Scorpion motif is often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting (2 examples). Scorpion kilim motif.jpg
Scorpion motif is often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting (2 examples).

Spiders have been depicted in stories, mythologies and the arts of many cultures for centuries. [34] They have symbolized patience due to their hunting technique of setting webs and waiting for prey, as well as mischief and malice due to their venomous bites. [35] The Italian tarantella is a dance supposedly to rid the young woman of the lustful effects of a bite by the tarantula wolf spider, Lycosa tarantula . [36] Web-spinning caused the association of the spider with creation myths, as they seem to produce their own worlds. [37] Dreamcatchers are depictions of spiderwebs. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, [38] emphasising animals and often depicting spiders in their art. [39]

The scorpion appeared as the astrological sign Scorpio , in the twelve signs of the Zodiac, created by Babylonian astronomers during the Chaldean period, around 600 BC. [40] In South Africa and South Asia, the scorpion is a significant animal culturally, appearing as a motif in art, especially in Islamic art in the Middle East. [41] A scorpion motif is often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting. [42] The scorpion is perceived both as an embodiment of evil and a protective force that counters evil, such as a dervish's powers to combat evil. [41] In another context, the scorpion portrays human sexuality. [41] Scorpions are used in folk medicine in South Asia especially in antidotes for scorpion stings. [41] In ancient Egypt the goddess Serket was often depicted as a scorpion, one of several goddesses who protected the Pharaoh. [43]

In art, literature, and music

Insects feature in art, [44] in literature, in film, [45] and in music.

The "Lobster Quadrille", also known as "The Mock Turtle's Song", is a song recited by the Mock Turtle in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , chapters 9 and 10, accompanied by a dance. [46]

The surrealist artist Salvador Dalí created a sculpture called Lobster Telephone with the crustacean in place of the traditional handset, resting in the cradle above the dial. [47] The Surrealist filmmaker Luis Buñuel used scorpions in his 1930 classic L'Age d'or (The Golden Age). [48]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpion</span> Predatory order of arachnids

Scorpions are predatory arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have eight legs, and are easily recognized by a pair of grasping pincers and a narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back and always ending with a stinger. The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back 435 million years. They mainly live in deserts but have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. There are over 2,500 described species, with 22 extant (living) families recognized to date. Their taxonomy is being revised to account for 21st-century genomic studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chelicerata</span> Subphylum of arthropods

The subphylum Chelicerata constitutes one of the major subdivisions of the phylum Arthropoda. It contains the sea spiders, horseshoe crabs, and arachnids, as well as a number of extinct lineages, such as the eurypterids and chasmataspidids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arachnid</span> Class of arthropods

Arachnida is a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals (arthropods), in the subphylum Chelicerata. Arachnida includes, among others, spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, whip spiders and vinegaroons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crab</span> Infraorder of decapod crustaceans

Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax. They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemocyanin</span> Proteins that transport oxygen throughout the bodies of some invertebrate animals

Hemocyanins (also spelled haemocyanins and abbreviated Hc) are proteins that transport oxygen throughout the bodies of some invertebrate animals. These metalloproteins contain two copper atoms that reversibly bind a single oxygen molecule (O2). They are second only to hemoglobin in frequency of use as an oxygen transport molecule. Unlike the hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates, hemocyanins are not confined in blood cells but are instead suspended directly in the hemolymph. Oxygenation causes a color change between the colorless Cu(I) deoxygenated form and the blue Cu(II) oxygenated form.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedipalp</span> Appendage of chelicerate

Pedipalps are the second pair of appendages of chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ("jaws") and anterior to the first pair of walking legs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chelicerae</span> Mouthparts of spiders and horseshoe crabs

The chelicerae are the mouthparts of the subphylum Chelicerata, an arthropod group that includes arachnids, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. Commonly referred to as "jaws", chelicerae may be shaped as either articulated fangs, or similarly to pincers. Some chelicerae, such as those found on nearly all spiders, are hollow and contain venom glands, and are used to inject venom into prey or a perceived threat. Both pseudoscorpions and harvestmen have structures on their chelicerae that are used for grooming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solifugae</span> Order of spider-like animals

Solifugae is an order of animals in the class Arachnida known variously as camel spiders, wind scorpions, sun spiders, or solifuges. The order includes more than 1,000 described species in about 147 genera. Despite the common names, they are neither true scorpions, nor true spiders. Most species of Solifugae live in dry climates and feed opportunistically on ground-dwelling arthropods and other small animals. The largest species grow to a length of 12–15 cm (5–6 in), including legs. A number of urban legends exaggerate the size and speed of the Solifugae, and their potential danger to humans, which is negligible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xiphosura</span> Order of marine chelicerates

Xiphosura is an order of arthropods related to arachnids. They are more commonly known as horseshoe crabs. They first appeared in the Hirnantian. Currently, there are only four living species. Xiphosura contains one suborder, Xiphosurida, and several stem-genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalothorax</span> Arachnid tagma

The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind.. The word cephalothorax is derived from the Greek words for head and thorax. This fusion of the head and thorax is seen in chelicerates and crustaceans; in other groups, such as the Hexapoda, the head remains free of the thorax. In horseshoe crabs and many crustaceans, a hard shell called the carapace covers the cephalothorax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entomophagy in humans</span> Practice of eating insects in human cultures

Entomophagy in humans or human entomophagy describes the consumption of insects (entomophagy) by humans in a cultural and biological context. The scientific term used in anthropology, cultural studies, biology and medicine is anthropo-entomophagy. Anthropo-entomophagy does not include the eating of arthropods other than insects such as arachnids and myriapods, which is defined as arachnophagy.

Atelocerata is a proposed clade of arthropods that includes Hexapoda and Myriapoda, but excludes Crustacea and Chelicerata. The name is currently used interchangeably with Tracheata. or Uniramia sensu stricto. It is an extensive division of arthropods comprising all those that breathe by tracheae, as distinguished from Crustacea, which breathe by means of gills.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opisthosoma</span> Posterior body part of some arthropods

The opisthosoma is the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, behind the prosoma (cephalothorax). It is a distinctive feature of the subphylum Chelicerata. Although it is similar in most respects to an abdomen, the opisthosoma is differentiated by its inclusion of the respiratory organs and the heart.

Pompilidotoxins (PMTXs) are toxic substances that can only be found in the venom of several solitary wasps. This kind of wasp uses their venom to offensively capture prey and is relatively harmless to humans. This is in stark contrast to social insects that defend themselves and their colonies with their venom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthropod</span> Phylum of invertebrates with jointed exoskeletons

Arthropods are invertebrate animals in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess an exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate, a segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. They are an extremely diverse group, with up to 10 million species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthropod bites and stings</span> Medical condition

Many species of arthropods can bite or sting human beings. These bites and stings generally occur as a defense mechanism or during normal arthropod feeding. While most cases cause self-limited irritation, medically relevant complications include envenomation, allergic reactions, and transmission of vector-borne diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider</span> Order of arachnids

Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every land habitat. As of August 2022, 50,356 spider species in 132 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been debate among scientists about how families should be classified, with over 20 different classifications proposed since 1900.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crustacean</span> Subphylum of arthropods

Crustaceans belong to the subphylum Crustacea, and form a large, diverse group of arthropods including decapods, seed shrimp, branchiopods, fish lice, krill, remipedes, isopods, barnacles, copepods, opossum shrimps, amphipods and mantis shrimp. The crustacean group can be treated as a subphylum under the clade Mandibulata. It is now well accepted that the hexapods emerged deep in the Crustacean group, with the completed group referred to as Pancrustacea. The three classes Cephalocarida, Branchiopoda and Remipedia are more closely related to the hexapods than they are to any of the other crustaceans.

Arachnophagy describes a feeding behaviour that includes arachnids. Aside from non-human creatures, the term can also refer to the practice of eating arachnids among humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entomophagy</span> Practice of eating insects by organisms

Entomophagy is the practice of eating insects. An alternative term is insectivory. Terms for organisms that practice entomophagy are entomophage and insectivore.

References

  1. 1 2 Macionis, John J.; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). Sociology. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. ISBN   978-0137001613. OCLC   652430995.
  2. ↑ Ortega-Hernández, J. (2016). "Making sense of 'lower' and 'upper' stem-group Euarthropoda, with comments on the strict use of the name Arthropoda von Siebold, 1848". Biological Reviews. 91 (1): 255–273. doi:10.1111/brv.12168. PMID   25528950. S2CID   7751936.[ permanent dead link ]
  3. ↑ Meyer-Rochow V.B., Nonaka K., Boulidam S. (2008). "More feared than revered: Insects and their impacts on human societies (with specific data on the importance of entomophagy in a Laotian setting". Entomologie Heute. 20: 3–25.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ Chakravorty J., Ghosh S., Meyer-Rochow V.B. (2011). "Practices of entomophagy and entomotherapy by members of the Nyishi and Galo tribes, two ethnic groups of the state of Arunachal Pradesh (North-East India)". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 7: 5. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-7-5. PMC   3031207 . PMID   21235790.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ "Cochineal and Carmine". Major colourants and dyestuffs, mainly produced in horticultural systems. FAO. Retrieved June 16, 2015.
  6. ↑ Pierce, BA (2006). Genetics: A Conceptual Approach (2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p.  87. ISBN   978-0-7167-8881-2.
  7. ↑ "FIGIS: Global Production Statistics 1950–2007". Food and Agriculture Organization . Retrieved February 24, 2010.
  8. ↑ Steven Nicol; Yoshinari Endo (1997). Krill Fisheries of the World. Fisheries Technical Paper. Vol. 367. Food and Agriculture Organization. ISBN   978-92-5-104012-6.
  9. ↑ "Global Capture Production 1950-2004". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on January 23, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2006.
  10. ↑ Asbjørn Drengstig; Tormod Drengstig & Tore S. Kristiansen. "Recent development on lobster farming in Norway – prospects and possibilities". UWPhoto ANS. Archived from the original on 2003-10-04.
  11. ↑ "Riddles, Trivia and More". Gulf of Maine Research Institute. February 24, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  12. ↑ Carrington, Damian (1 August 2010). "Insects could be the key to meeting food needs of growing global population". The Guardian .
  13. ↑ Ramos-Elorduy, Julieta (2009). "Anthropo-Entomophagy: Cultures, Evolution And Sustainability". Entomological Research. 39 (5): 271–288. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5967.2009.00238.x . S2CID   84739253.
  14. ↑ Global Steak - Demain nos enfants mangeront des criquets (2010 French documentary)
  15. ↑ E.M. Costa-Neto, N.T. Grabowski (27 November 2020): Edible arachnids and myriapods worldwide – updated list, nutritional profile and food hygiene implications. In: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed: 0 (0), pp. 1-20. doi: https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2020.0046
  16. ↑ Ray, N. (2002). Lonely Planet Cambodia. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 308. ISBN   978-1-74059-111-9.
  17. ↑ Weil, C. (2006). Fierce Food. Plume. ISBN   978-0-452-28700-6. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2008-10-03.
  18. ↑ "Termite research". esf.edu. Archived from the original on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  19. ↑ "Spider Venom Could Yield Eco-Friendly Insecticides". National Science Foundation (USA). Retrieved 2008-10-11.
  20. ↑ Hinman, M. B.; Jones J. A. & Lewis, R. W. (2000). "Synthetic spider silk: a modular fiber" (PDF). Trends in Biotechnology. 18 (9): 374–9. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.682.313 . doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(00)01481-5. PMID   10942961. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2016-07-03.
  21. ↑ Menassa, R.; Zhu, H.; Karatzas, C. N.; Lazaris, A.; Richman, A.; Brandle, J. (2004). "Spider dragline silk proteins in transgenic tobacco leaves: accumulation and field production". Plant Biotechnology Journal. 2 (5): 431–8. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7652.2004.00087.x. PMID   17168889.
  22. ↑ M'Rabet, Salima Machkour; Hénaut, Yann; Winterton, Peter; Rojo, Roberto (2011). "A case of zootherapy with the tarantula Brachypelma vagans Ausserer, 1875 in traditional medicine of the Chol Mayan ethnic group in Mexico". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 7: 12. doi:10.1186/1746-4269-7-12. PMC   3072308 . PMID   21450096.
  23. ↑ Novak, K. (2001). "Spider venom helps hearts keep their rhythm". Nature Medicine. 7 (155): 155. doi: 10.1038/84588 . PMID   11175840.
  24. ↑ Lewis, R. J. & Garcia, M. L. (2003). "Therapeutic potential of venom peptides". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2 (10): 790–802. doi: 10.1038/nrd1197 . PMID   14526382.
  25. ↑ Bogin, O. (Spring 2005). "Venom Peptides and their Mimetics as Potential Drugs" (PDF). Modulator (19). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-09. Retrieved 2016-07-03.
  26. ↑ Andrade E.; Villanova F.; Borra P.; Leite, Katia; Troncone, Lanfranco; Cortez, Italo; Messina, Leonardo; Paranhos, Mario; Claro, Joaquim; Srougi, Miguel (2008). "Penile erection induced in vivo by a purified toxin from the Brazilian spider Phoneutria nigriventer". British Journal of Urology International. 102 (7): 835–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07762.x . PMID   18537953.
  27. ↑ Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2009). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 9–13. ISBN   978-1-4051-4457-5.
  28. ↑ Balée William (2000). "Antiquity of Traditional Ethnobiological Knowledge in Amazonia: a Tupí–Guaraní Family and Time". Ethnohistory. 47 (2): 399–422. doi:10.1215/00141801-47-2-399. S2CID   162813070.
  29. ↑ B. B. Rossi (1969). The Crab Nebula: Ancient History and Recent Discoveries. Center for Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. CSR-P-69-27.
  30. ↑ Elizabeth Benson (1972). The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York, NY: Praeger Press. ISBN   978-0-500-72001-1.
  31. ↑ Katherine Berrin; Larco Museum (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 216. ISBN   978-0-500-01802-6.
  32. ↑ Kipling, Rudyard (1902). "The Crab that Played with the Sea". Just So Stories. Macmillan.
  33. ↑ de Visser, D. M. (1913). The Dragon in China and Japan. J. Müller. pp. 191–192. Archived from the original on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2018-03-09.
  34. ↑ De Vos, Gail (1996). Tales, Rumors, and Gossip: Exploring Contemporary Folk Literature in Grades 7–12. Libraries Unlimited. p. 186. ISBN   978-1-56308-190-3.
  35. ↑ Garai, Jana (1973). The Book of Symbols . New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN   978-0-671-21773-0.
  36. ↑ Ettlinger, Ellen (1965). Review of "La Tarantella Napoletana" by Renato Penna (Rivista di Etnografia), Man, Vol. 65. (Sep. – Oct., 1965), p. 176.
  37. ↑ De Laguna, Frederica (2002). American Anthropology: Papers from the American Anthropologist. University of Nebraska Press. p. 455. ISBN   978-0-8032-8280-3.
  38. ↑ Benson, Elizabeth. The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York: Praeger Press. 1972.
  39. ↑ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
  40. ↑ Gary A. Polis (1990). The Biology of Scorpions. Stanford University Press. p. 462. ISBN   978-0-8047-1249-1.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Jürgen Wasim Frembgen (2004). "The scorpion in Muslim folklore" (PDF). Asian Folklore Studies . 63 (1): 95–123.
  42. ↑ Erbek, Güran (1998). Kilim Catalogue No. 1. May Selçuk A. S. Edition=1st.
  43. ↑ Mark, Joshua J. "Serket". World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved 4 July 2016.
  44. ↑ Gough, Andrew. "The Bee Part 2 Beewildered" . Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  45. ↑ "Ladybug Ladybug (1963)". IMDb . 23 December 1963. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  46. ↑ "The Lobster-quadrille". The Literature Network. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
  47. ↑ Lobster Telephone in the collection of Tate Liverpool, London. Accessed 27-01-2010.
  48. ↑ Allen S. Weiss (1996). "Between the sign of the scorpion and the sign of the cross: L'Age d'or". In Rudolf E. Kuenzli (ed.). Dada and Surrealist Film. MIT Press. pp.  159–175. ISBN   978-0-262-61121-3.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.