Blue pigments

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Cobalt blue pigment Cobalt Blue.JPG
Cobalt blue pigment

Blue pigments are natural or synthetic materials, usually made from minerals and insoluble with water, used to make the blue colors in painting and other arts. The raw material of the earliest blue pigment was lapis lazuli from mines in Afghanistan, that was refined into the pigment ultramarine. Since the late 18th and 19th century, blue pigments are largely synthetic, manufactured in laboratories and factories.

Contents

Ultramarine

Ultramarine was historically the most prestigious and expensive of blue pigments. It was produced from lapis lazuli, a mineral whose major source was the mines of Sar-e-Sang in what is now northeastern Afghanistan. [1] It was transformed into a pigment by the Afghans beginning in about the 5th century, and exported by caravans to India. It was the most expensive blue used by Renaissance artists. It was often reserved for special purposes, such as painting the robes of the Virgin Mary. [2] Johannes Vermeer used ultramarine only for the most important surfaces where he wanted to attract attention. Pietro Perugino, in his depiction of the Madonna and Child on the Certosa de Pavio Altarpiece, painted only the top level of the Virgin's robes in ultramarine, with azurite beneath. [3]

Ultramarine became more widely used after its successful synthesis in the 19th century, which reduced its price substantially. In 1814, a French chemist named Tassaert observed the spontaneous formation of a blue compound, very similar to ultramarine, in a lime kiln at St. Gobain. In 1824, the Societé pour l'Encouragement d'Industrie offered a prize for the artificial production of the precious color. Processes were devised independently by Jean Baptiste Guimet (1826) and Christian Gmelin (1828); while Guimet kept his process a secret, Gmelin published his, and thus became the originator of the French synthetic ultramarine industry. At the beginning of the 19th century, the price of a kilogram of lapis lazuli was between six and ten thousand francs. The price of artificial ultramarine was less than eight hundred francs per kilogram. [4] Synthetic ultramarine was widely appreciated by the French impressionists, and Vincent van Gogh used both French ultramarine and cobalt blue for his painting The Starry Night (1889). [5]

Egyptian Blue

Egyptian blue was the first synthetic blue pigment. It was made from a mixture of silica, lime, copper, and an alkali. It was widely used in The Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (c. 2613 to 2494 BC). [6] Egyptian blue is responsible for the blue colour seen very commonly in Egyptian faience.

Han blue

Han blue (also called Chinese blue) is a synthetic barium copper silicate pigment used in ancient and imperial China from the Western Zhou period (1045–771 BC) until the end of the Han dynasty (circa 220 AD). Han blue and the chemically related Han purple were used to decorate hu vessels during the Han dynasty, and were also used for mural paintings in tombs of the same period. [7]

Maya blue

Maya blue is a synthetic turquoise-blue pigment made by infusing indigo dyes (particularly those derived from the anil shrub) into palygorskite, a clay that binds and stabilises the indigo such that it becomes resistant to weathering. [8] Developed in Mesoamerica in the first millennium AD, it saw wide use in the region, most prominently in the art of the Maya civilisation. It is known on media from pottery to murals to codices, and also played an important role in ritual sacrifices of both objects and people: silt at the bottom of the Sacred Cenote at Chichén Itzá is heavily stained with Maya blue, washed off the hundreds of sacrificial offerings cast into the cenote during the city's occupation. [9] Maya blue continued to be used into the Spanish colonial period; though falling out of widespread use in the Maya region during the 16th century, some areas apparently continued to produce it for export, as Cuban colonial paintings of the 18th and 19th century have been found to make use of Maya blue probably imported from Campeche. [10]

Azurite

Azurite pigment is derived from the soft, deep-blue copper mineral of the same name, which forms from the weathering of copper ore deposits. It was mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Natural History under the Greek name kuanos (κυανός: "deep blue," root of English cyan) and the Latin name caeruleum. The modern English name of the mineral reflects this association, since both azurite and azure are derived via Arabic from the Persian lazhward (لاژورد), an area known for its deposits of another deep-blue stone, lapis. Azurite was often used in the Renaissance and later as a less expensive substitute for ultramarine. Lower layers would be painted in azurite, with the most visible portions painted in ultramarine. The drawback of the pigment is that it degrades and darkens over time. [11]

Prussian Blue

Prussian blue is a dark blue pigment containing iron and cyanide produced by the oxidation of ferrous ferrocyanide salts. It was invented in Berlin between 1704 and 1710. It had an immediate impact on the pigment market, because its intense deep blue color approached the quality of ultramarine at a much lower price. It was widely adapted by major European artists, notably Thomas Gainsborough and Canaletto, who used it to paint the Venetian sky. [12] It was also used by Japanese artists, including Hokusai, for the deeper blues of waves.

Cerulean blue

Cerulean blue was created in 1789 by the Swiss chemist Albrecht Höpfner. [13] Subsequently, there was a limited German production under the name of Cölinblau. The primary chemical constituent of the pigment is cobalt(II) stannate (Co
2
SnO
4
). [14]

Cobalt blue

Cobalt blue is a synthetic blue pigment was invented in 1803 as a rival to ultramarine. It was made by the process of sintering, that is by compacting and forming a solid mass of material by heat or pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction. It combined cobalt(II) oxide with aluminum(III) oxide (alumina) at 1200 °C. It was also used as colorant, particularly in blue glass and as the blue pigment used for centuries in Chinese blue and white porcelain, beginning in the late eighth or early ninth century. [15]

Cobalt glass, or Smalt, is a variation of cobalt blue. It is made of ground blue potassium glass containing cobalt blue. It was widely used in painting in the 16th and the 17th centuries. Smalt was popular because of its low cost; it was widely used by Dutch and Flemish painters, including Hans Holbein the Younger. [16]

YInMn Blue

YInMn Blue is an inorganic pigment with an intense blue color that was discovered by Mas Subramanian and his graduate student, Andrew Smith, at Oregon State University in 2009. [17] [18] It has been used in water, oil, and acrylic paints from paint vendors including Derivan, [19] [20] Golden, [21] and Gamblin. [22]

The name "YInMn" comes from the chemical symbols for yttrium, indium and manganese. The intense blue color comes from the crystal structure of the chemical compound, and can be varied by adjusting the ratio of indium and manganese. After discovering this pigment, Subramanian’s research team has used similar principles of colour science to design a range of novel green, purple, and orange pigments. [23] [24] [25]

List of inorganic blue pigments

This is a list of blue inorganic pigments, both natural and synthetic: [26]

Aluminium pigments

Cobalt pigments

Copper pigments

Iron pigments

Manganese pigments

Notes and citations

  1. Bomford and Roy, "A Closer Look at Colour" (2009), p. 28-37
  2. Varichon, (2005) p. 164
  3. Pastoureau, Michel, "Bleu - Histoire d'une couleur" (2000), p. 100
  4. Maerz and Paul (1930). A Dictionary of Color New York: McGraw Hill p. 206
  5. Yonghui Zhao, Roy S. Berns, Lawrence A. Taplin, James Coddington, An Investigation of Multispectral Imaging for the Mapping of Pigments in Paintings, in Proc. SPIE 6810, Computer Image Analysis in the Study of Art, 681007 (29 February 2008)
  6. McCouat, Philip (2018). "Egyptian blue: The colour of technology". artinsociety.com. Journal of Art in Society. Archived from the original on 2019-03-28. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
  7. FitzHugh, E. W. and Zycherman, L. A. 1992. A Purple Barium Copper Silicate Pigment from Early China. Studies in Conservation 28/1, 15–23.
  8. Sánchez del Río, M.; Doménech, A.; Doménech-Carbó, M. T.; Vázquez de Agredos Pascual, M. L.; Suárez, M.; García-Romero, E. (2011). "18". In Galàn, E.; Singer, A. (eds.). Developments in Clay Science 3: Developments in Palygorskite-Sepiolite Research. Elsevier. pp. 453–481. ISBN   978-0-444-53607-5.
  9. Arnold, D. E.; Branden, J. R.; Williams, P. R.; Feinman, G. M.; Brown, J. P. (2008). "The first direct evidence for the production of Maya Blue: rediscovery of a technology". Antiquity. 82 (315): 151–164. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00096514.
  10. Tagle, A. A.; Paschinger, H.; Richard, H.; Infante, G. (1990). "Maya blue: its presence in Cuban colonial wall paintings". Studies in Conservation. 35 (3): 156–159. doi:10.1179/sic.1990.35.3.156.
  11. Gettens, R.J. and Fitzhugh, E.W., Azurite and Blue Verditer, in Artists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 2: A. Roy (Ed.) Oxford University Press 1993, p. 23–24
  12. Bomford and Roy, "A Closer Look - Colour", the National Gallery, London (2009),p. 37
  13. Höpfner, Albrecht (1789). "Einige kleine Chymische Versuche vom Herausgeber". Magazin für die Naturkunde Helvetiens. 4: 41–47.
  14. "Cerulean blue - Overview". webexhibits.org. Pigments through the Ages. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  15. "Chinese pottery: The Yuan dynasty (1206–1368)". Archived 2017-12-29 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed 7 June 2018.
  16. Smalt Pigments through the Ages
  17. 1 2 Smith, Andrew E.; Mizoguchi, Hiroshi; Delaney, Kris; Spaldin, Nicola A.; Sleight, Arthur W.; Subramanian, M. A. (2009). "Mn3+ in Trigonal Bipyramidal Coordination: A New Blue Chromophore". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131: 17084–17086. doi:10.1021/ja9080666. PMID   19899792.
  18. Cascone, Sarah (20 June 2016). "The Chemist Who Discovered the World's Newest Blue Explains Its Miraculous Properties". Artnet News. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020.
  19. "Product Profile: Yin Min Blue". YouTube. Derivan. 12 July 2016. Archived from the original on 5 November 2017.
  20. Cascone, Sarah (19 June 2017). "The Wild Blue Yonder: How the Accidental Discovery of an Eye-Popping New Color Changed a Chemist's Life". Artnet. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
  21. "Update on YInMn Blue from GOLDEN's Custom Lab". 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-08-18.
  22. "Gamblin YInMn Blue".
  23. Smith, Andrew E.; et al. (October 2016). "Spectral properties of the UV absorbing and near-IR reflecting blue pigment, YIn1−xMnxO3". Dyes and Pigments. 133: 214–221. doi: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2016.05.029 .
  24. Li, Jun & Subramanian, M. A. (April 2019). "Inorganic pigments with transition metal chromophores at trigonal bipyramidal coordination: Y(In,Mn)O3 blues and beyond". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 272: 9–20. Bibcode:2019JSSCh.272....9L. doi: 10.1016/j.jssc.2019.01.019 . S2CID   104373418.
  25. Li, Jun; et al. (13 September 2016). "From Serendipity to Rational Design: Tuning the Blue Trigonal Bipyramidal Mn3+ Chromophore to Violet and Purple through Application of Chemical Pressure". Inorganic Chemistry. 55 (19): 9798–9804. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b01639. PMID   27622607.
  26. Völz, Hans G.; et al. "Pigments, Inorganic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_243.pub2. ISBN   978-3527306732..

Bibliography

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue</span> Colour between violet and cyan on the visible spectrum of light

Blue is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model, as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model. It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light. The term blue generally describes colours perceived by humans observing light with a dominant wavelength that’s between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called the Tyndall effect explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultramarine</span> Deep blue purple color pigment which was originally made with ground lapis lazuli

Ultramarine is a deep blue color pigment which was originally made by grinding lapis lazuli into a powder. Its lengthy grinding and washing process makes the natural pigment quite valuable—roughly ten times more expensive than the stone it comes from and as expensive as gold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lazurite</span> Alumino-silicate mineral whose blue colour is due to a sulfide species and not copper

Lazurite is a tectosilicate mineral with sulfate, sulfur and chloride with formula (Na,Ca)8[(S,Cl,SO4,OH)2|(Al6Si6O24)]. It is a feldspathoid and a member of the sodalite group. Lazurite crystallizes in the isometric system although well‐formed crystals are rare. It is usually massive and forms the bulk of the gemstone lapis lazuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lapis lazuli</span> Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color

Lapis lazuli, or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, lāžward, lapis lazuli is a rock composed primarily of the minerals lazurite, pyrite and calcite. As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in modern northeast Afghanistan. Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation. Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation. Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus, and as far away as Mauritania. It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pigment</span> Colored material

A pigment is a powder used to add color or change visual appearance. Pigments are completely or nearly insoluble and chemically unreactive in water or another medium; in contrast, dyes are colored substances which are soluble or go into solution at some stage in their use. Dyes are often organic compounds whereas pigments are often inorganic. Pigments of prehistoric and historic value include ochre, charcoal, and lapis lazuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basic copper carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Basic copper carbonate is a chemical compound, more properly called copper(II) carbonate hydroxide. It is an ionic compound consisting of the ions copper(II) Cu2+
, carbonate CO2−
3
, and hydroxide OH
.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azurite</span> Copper carbonate mineral

Azurite is a soft, deep-blue copper mineral produced by weathering of copper ore deposits. During the early 19th century, it was also known as chessylite, after the type locality at Chessy-les-Mines near Lyon, France. The mineral, a basic carbonate with the chemical formula Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2, has been known since ancient times, and was mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Natural History under the Greek name kuanos (κυανός: "deep blue," root of English cyan) and the Latin name caeruleum. Copper (Cu2+) gives it its blue color.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oil paint</span> Type of slow-drying paint

Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. For several centuries the oil painting has been perhaps the most prestigous form in Western art, but oil paint has many practical uses, mainly because it is waterproof.

Cerulean, also spelled caerulean, is a variety of the hue of blue that may range from a light azure blue to a more intense sky blue, and may be mixed as well with the hue of green. The first recorded use of cerulean as a colour name in English was in 1590. The word is derived from the Latin word caeruleus, "dark blue, blue, or blue-green", which in turn probably derives from caerulum, diminutive of caelum, "heaven, sky".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt blue</span> Blue pigment

Cobalt blue is a blue pigment made by sintering cobalt(II) oxide with aluminium(III) oxide (alumina) at 1200 °C. Chemically, cobalt blue pigment is cobalt(II) oxide-aluminium oxide, or cobalt(II) aluminate, CoAl2O4. Cobalt blue is lighter and less intense than the (iron-cyanide based) pigment Prussian blue. It is extremely stable and historically has been used as a coloring agent in ceramics (especially Chinese porcelain), jewelry, and paint. Transparent glasses are tinted with the silica-based cobalt pigment "smalt".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt glass</span> Deep blue glass colored with cobalt

Cobalt glass—known as "smalt" when ground as a pigment—is a deep blue coloured glass prepared by including a cobalt compound, typically cobalt oxide or cobalt carbonate, in a glass melt. Cobalt is a very intense colouring agent and very little is required to show a noticeable amount of colour.

Bice, from the French bis, originally meaning dark-coloured, is a green or blue pigment. In French the terms vert bis and azur bis mean dark green and dark blue respectively. Bice pigments were generally prepared from basic copper carbonates, but sometimes ultramarine or other pigments were used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Han purple and Han blue</span> Artificial barium copper silicate pigments developed in ancient China during the Han dynasty

Han purple and Han blue are synthetic barium copper silicate pigments developed in China and used in ancient and imperial China from the Western Zhou period until the end of the Han dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Egyptian blue</span> Pigment used in ancient Egypt

Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate (CaCuSi4O10 or CaOCuO(SiO2)4 (calcium copper tetrasilicate)) or cuprorivaite, is a pigment that was used in ancient Egypt for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. It was known to the Romans by the name caeruleum. After the Roman era, Egyptian blue fell from use and, thereafter, the manner of its creation was forgotten. In modern times, scientists have been able to analyze its chemistry and reconstruct how to make it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">YInMn Blue</span> Inorganic blue pigment

YInMn Blue, also known as Oregon Blue or Mas Blue, is an inorganic blue pigment that was discovered by Mas Subramanian and his (then) graduate student, Andrew Smith, at Oregon State University in 2009. The pigment is noteworthy for its vibrant, near-perfect blue color and unusually high NIR reflectance. The chemical compound has a unique crystal structure in which trivalent manganese ions in the trigonal bipyramidal coordination are responsible for the observed intense blue color. Since the initial discovery, the fundamental principles of colour science have been explored extensively by the Subramanian research team at Oregon State University, resulting in a wide range of rationally designed novel green, purple, and orange pigments, all through intentional addition of a chromophore in the trigonal bipyramidal coordination environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue in culture</span>

The color blue has been important in culture, politics, art and fashion since ancient times. Blue was used in ancient Egypt for jewelry and ornament. In the Renaissance, blue pigments were prized for paintings and fine blue and white porcelain. in the Middle Ages, deep rich blues made with cobalt were used in stained glass windows. In the 19th century, the colour was often used for military uniforms and fashion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lajvardina-type ceramics</span>

Lajvardina-type ceramics were developed in the 13th century following the Mongol invasion of Persia. It was produced throughout the Ilkhanate reign. It is characterized by its deep blue color and often features geometric patterns or foliage inlaid with gold leaf. The style was created using overglaze enamel. An initial layer of dark blue glaze, produced from cobalt, was applied, followed by another layer, often gold, on which the details were painted. It was primarily produced in Kashan, a center for ceramic production and lusterware in the 12th and early 13th centuries. The style was continuously used for tiles and ornamental objects from the 1260s C.E. until the mid-14th century, when production dropped significantly, coinciding with the fall of the Ilkhanate in 1335.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green pigments</span> Substances reflecting light between 475-590 nm

Green pigments are the materials used to create the green colors seen in painting and the other arts. Most come from minerals, particularly those containing compounds of copper. Green pigments reflect the green portions of the spectrum of visible light, and absorb the others. Important green pigments in art history include Malachite and Verdigris, found in tomb paintings in Ancient Egypt, and the Green earth pigments popular in the Middle Ages. More recent greens, such as Cobalt Green, are largely synthetic, made in laboratories and factories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azurite (pigment)</span> Blue pigment commonly used in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Azurite is an inorganic pigment derived from the mineral of the same name. It was likely used by artists as early as the Fourth Dynasty in Egypt, but it was less frequently employed than synthetically produced copper pigments such as Egyptian Blue. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it was the most prevalent blue pigment in European paintings, appearing more commonly than the more expensive ultramarine. Azurite's derivation from copper mines tends to give it a greenish hue, in contrast with the more violet tone of ultramarine. Azurite is also less stable than ultramarine, and notable paintings such as Michelangelo's The Entombment have seen their azure blues turn to olive green in time. Azurite pigment typically includes traces of malachite and cuprite; both minerals are found alongside azurite in nature, and they may account for some of the green discoloration of the pigment. The particle size of azurite pigment has been shown to have a significant effect on its chromatic intensity, and the manner of grinding and preparing the pigment therefore has a major impact on its appearance.