Classifications of snow

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Snow accumulation on ground and in tree branches in Germany Snow packed trees.jpg
Snow accumulation on ground and in tree branches in Germany
Snow blowing across a highway in Canada Snow blowing.jpg
Snow blowing across a highway in Canada
Spring snow on a mountain in France Diapo1977-07 37 Au pic de l'Etendard.jpg
Spring snow on a mountain in France

Classifications of snow describe and categorize the attributes of snow-generating weather events, including the individual crystals both in the air and on the ground, and the deposited snow pack as it changes over time. Snow can be classified by describing the weather event that is producing it, the shape of its ice crystals or flakes, how it collects on the ground, and thereafter how it changes form and composition. Depending on the status of the snow in the air or on the ground, a different classification applies.

Contents

Snowfall arises from a variety of events that vary in intensity and cause, subject to classification by weather bureaus. Some snowstorms are part of a larger weather pattern. Other snowfall occurs from lake effects or atmospheric instability near mountains. Falling snow takes many different forms, depending on atmospheric conditions, especially vapor content and temperature, as it falls to the ground. Once on the ground, snow crystals metamorphose into different shapes, influenced by wind, freeze-thaw and sublimation. Snow on the ground forms a variety of shapes, formed by wind and thermal processes, all subject to formal classifications both by scientists and by ski resorts. Those who work and play in snowy landscapes have informal classifications, as well.

There is a long history of northern and alpine cultures describing snow in their different languages, including Inupiat, Russian and Finnish. [1] However, the lore about the multiplicity of Eskimo words for snow originates from controversial scholarship on a topic that is difficult to define, because of the structures of the languages involved. [2]

Classification of snow events

Snow events reflect the type of storm that generates them and the type of precipitation that results. Classification systems use rates of deposition, types of precipitation, visibility, duration and wind speed to characterize such events.

Snow-producing events

Blizzard conditions with heavy snow, high winds and reduced visibility in New Jersey Snowpocalypse Holiday Blizzard 2010 Route 46 Little Ferry New Jersey.jpg
Blizzard conditions with heavy snow, high winds and reduced visibility in New Jersey

The following terms are consistent with the classifications of United States National Weather Service and the Meteorological Service of Canada: [3]

Precipitation

Wilson Bentley micrograph showing two classes of snow crystals, plate and column. Bentley snowflake micrograph no. 777.jpg
Wilson Bentley micrograph showing two classes of snow crystals, plate and column.
Snow crystal with a column capped with plates, which are growing rime ice. Snowflake 300um LTSEM, 13368.jpg
Snow crystal with a column capped with plates, which are growing rime ice.

Precipitation may be characterized by type and intensity.

Type

Frozen precipitation includes snow, snow pellets, snow grains, ice crystals, ice pellets, and hail. [12] Falling snow comprises ice crystals, growing in a hexagonal pattern and combining as snowflakes. [13] Ice crystals may be "any one of a number of macroscopic, crystalline forms in which ice appears, including hexagonal columns, hexagonal platelets, dendritic crystals, ice needles, and combinations of these forms". [14] Terms that refer to falling snow particles include:

  • Ice crystals (also diamond dust ) – Suspended in the atmosphere as needles, columns or plates at very low temperatures in a stable atmosphere. [15]
  • Ice pellets – Two manifestations, sleet and small hail, that result in irregular spherical particles, which typically bounce upon impact. Sleet comprises grains of ice that form from refreezing of largely melted snowflakes when falling through into a frozen layer of air near the surface. Small hail forms from snow pellets encased in a thin layer of ice caused either by accretion of droplets or by refreezing of each particle's surface. [16]
  • Hail – Forms in cumulonimbus clouds as irregular spheres of ice (hailstones) with a diameter of 5 mm or more.
  • Snowflake – Grows from a single ice crystal and may have agglomerated with other crystals as it falls. [17]
  • Snow grain (also granular snow) – Flattened and elongated agglomerations of crystals, typically less than 1 mm diameter, that include a range of crystal sizes and complexities to include a rime core and glaze coating. They typically originate in stratus clouds or from fog and fall in small quantities, not in showers. [18]
  • Snow pellets (also soft hail, graupel, tapioca snow) – Spherical or conical ice particles, based on a snowlike structure, with diameters between 2 mm and 5 mm. They form by accretion of supercooled droplets near or slightly below the freezing point and rebound off hard surfaces upon landing. [19]

Intensity

In the US, the intensity of snowfall is characterized by visibility through the falling precipitation, as follows: [13]

  • Light snow: visibility of 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) or greater
  • Moderate snow: visibility between 1 kilometre (1,100 yd) and 0.5 kilometres (550 yd)
  • Heavy snow: visibility of less than 0.5 kilometres (550 yd)

Snow crystal classification

An early classification of snowflakes by Israel Perkins Warren. Snowflakeschapte00warriala-p11-p21-p29-p39.jpg
An early classification of snowflakes by Israel Perkins Warren.

Ice approximates hexagonal symmetry in most of its atmospheric manifestations of a crystal lattice as snow. Temperature and vapor pressure determine the growth of the hexagonal crystal lattice in different forms that include columnar growth in the axis perpendicular to the hexagonal plane to form snow crystals. [14] Ukichiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphology diagram, relating crystal shape to the temperature and moisture conditions under which they formed. [21] Magono and Lee devised a classification of freshly formed snow crystals that includes 80 distinct shapes. They are summarized in the following principal snow crystal categories (with symbol): [22]

Classifications of snow on the ground

Classification of snow on the ground comes from two sources: the science community and the community of those who encounter it in their daily lives. Snow on the ground exists both as a material with varying properties and as a variety of structures, shaped by wind, sun, temperature, and precipitation.

Hoar frost on the snow surface from crystallized water vapor emerging on a cold, clear night Skiing Christmas '05 034.jpg
Hoar frost on the snow surface from crystallized water vapor emerging on a cold, clear night
Cornice on an alp in France Cornice Aiguille de Bionassay.jpg
Cornice on an alp in France
Snowdrift in Gloucestershire SnowHidcoteBartrimColemansHill201803020852.jpg
Snowdrift in Gloucestershire
Sastrugi in Norway Sastrugi.jpg
Sastrugi in Norway
Alpine firn in Austria Firn field on the top of Sauleck.jpg
Alpine firn in Austria
Penitentes under the night sky of the Atacama Desert Planetary Analogue.jpg
Penitentes under the night sky of the Atacama Desert
Suncups in England Snow field near Gibby Beam - geograph.org.uk - 1182123.jpg
Suncups in England
Packing snow being rolled into a large snowball in Oxford, England. Giant snowball Oxford.jpg
Packing snow being rolled into a large snowball in Oxford, England.

Classification of snowpack material properties

The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground describes snow crystal classification, once it is deposited on the ground, that include grain shape and grain size. The system also characterizes the snowpack, as the individual crystals metamorphize and coalesce. [23] It uses the following characteristics (with units) to describe deposited snow: microstructure, grain shape, grain size (mm), snow density (kg/m3), snow hardness, liquid water content, snow temperature (°C), impurities (mass fraction), and layer thickness (cm). The grain shape is further characterized, using the following categories (with code): precipitation particles (PP), machine-made snow (MM), decomposing and fragmented precipitation particles (DF), rounded grains (RG), faceted crystals (FC), depth hoar (DH), surface hoar (SH), melt forms (MF), and ice formations (IF). Other measurements and characteristics are used as well, including a snow profile of a vertical section of the snowpack. [23] Some snowpack features include:

Snow Crust about 6 cm thick in Austria Bruchharsch 2018-03 Berglasferner.jpg
Snow Crust about 6 cm thick in Austria

Classifications of snowpack surface and structure

In addition to having material properties, snowpacks have structure which can be characterized. These properties are primarily determined through the actions of wind, sun, and temperature. Such structures have been described by mountaineers and others encountering frozen landscapes, as follows: [26]

Wind-induced

  • Cornice – Wind blowing over a ridge can create a compacted snowdrift with an overhanging top, called a cornice. Cornices present a hazard to mountaineers, because they are prone to break off. [26]
  • Finger drift – A finger drift is a narrow snow drift (30 cm to 1 metre in width) crossing a roadway. Several finger drifts in succession resemble the fingers of a hand. [27]
  • Pillow drift – A pillow drift is a snow drift crossing a roadway and usually 3 to 4.5 metres (10–15 feet) in width and 30 cm to 90 cm (1–3 feet) in depth. [28]
  • SastrugiSastrugi are snow surface features sculpted by wind into ridges and grooves up to 3 meters high, [29] with the ridges facing into the prevailing wind. [30]
  • SnowdriftSnowdrifts are wind-driven accumulations of snow deposited downwind of obstructions. [31]
  • Wind crust – A layer of relatively stiff, hard snow formed by deposition of wind blown snow on the windward side of a ridge or other sheltered area. Wind crusts generally bond better to snowpack layers below and above them than wind slabs. [32]
  • Wind slab – A layer of relatively stiff, hard snow formed by deposition of wind blown snow on the leeward side of a ridge or other sheltered area. Wind slabs can form over weaker, softer freshly fallen powder snow, creating an avalanche hazard on steep slopes. [32]

Sun or temperature-induced

  • FirnFirn is dense, granular snow, which has been in place for multiple years but which has not yet consolidated into glacial ice. [33]
  • NévéNévé is a young, granular type of snow which has been partially melted, refrozen and compacted, yet precedes the form of ice. This type of snow is associated with glacier formation through the process of nivation. [34] Névé that survives a full season of ablation turns into firn, which is both older and slightly denser. [33]
  • PenitentesPenitentes are snow formations, found at high elevations, which form of elongated, thin blades of hardened snow or ice up to 5 meters in height, closely spaced and pointing towards the general direction of the sun. They are evolved suncups. [35]
  • SuncupsSuncups are polygonal depressions in a snow surface that form patterns with sharp narrow ridges separating smoothly concave quasi-periodic hollows. They form during the ablation (melting away) of snow from incident solar radiation in bright sunny conditions, sometimes enhanced by the insulating presence of dirt along the ridges. [36]
  • YukimarimoYukimarimo are balls of fine frost, formed at low temperatures on the Antarctic Plateau during light or calm winds. [37]

Ski resort classification

Ski resorts use standardized terminology to describe their snow conditions. In North America terms include: [38]

Informal classification

Skiers and others living with snow provide informal terms for snow conditions that they encounter.

In various cultures

Not surprisingly, in languages and cultures where snow is common, having different words for distinct weather conditions and types of snowfall is desirable for efficient communication. [44] Finnish, [45] Icelandic, [46] Norwegian, [47] Russian, [48] [49] and Swedish [50] have multiple words and phrases relating to snow and snowfall, in some cases dozens or even hundreds, depending upon how one counts.

Studies of the Sámi languages of Norway, Sweden and Finland, conclude that the languages have anywhere from 180 snow- and ice-related words and as many as 300 different words for types of snow, tracks in snow, and conditions of the use of snow. [51] [52]

The claim that Eskimo–Aleut languages (specifically, Yupik and Inuit) have an unusually large number of words for "snow", has been attributed to the work of anthropologist Franz Boas. Boas, who lived among Baffin islanders and learnt their language, reportedly included "only words representing meaningful distinctions" in his account. [53] A 2010 study follows the sometimes questionable scholarship regarding the question whether these languages have many more root words for "snow" than the English language. [54] [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frost</span> Coating or deposit of ice

Frost is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor that deposits onto a freezing surface. Frost forms when the air contains more water vapor than it can normally hold at a specific temperature. The process is similar to the formation of dew, except it occurs below the freezing point of water typically without crossing through a liquid state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snow</span> Precipitation in the form of ice crystal flakes

Snow comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide or sublimate away.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fog</span> Atmospheric phenomenon

Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud usually resembling stratus, and is heavily influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography, and wind conditions. In turn, fog affects many human activities, such as shipping, travel, and warfare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avalanche</span> Rapid flow of a mass of snow down a slope

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, such as a hill or mountain. Avalanches can be triggered spontaneously, by factors such as increased precipitation or snowpack weakening, or by external means such as humans, other animals, and earthquakes. Primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to capture and move ice, rocks, and trees.

Diamond dust is a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. This meteorological phenomenon is also referred to simply as ice crystals and is reported in the METAR code as IC. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so it is sometimes referred to as clear-sky precipitation. Diamond dust is most commonly observed in Antarctica and the Arctic, but can occur anywhere with a temperature well below freezing. In the polar regions of Earth, diamond dust may persist for several days without interruption.

Freezing rain is rain maintained at temperatures below freezing by the ambient air mass that causes freezing on contact with surfaces. Unlike a mixture of rain and snow or ice pellets, freezing rain is made entirely of liquid droplets. The raindrops become supercooled while passing through a sub-freezing layer of air hundreds of meters above the ground, and then freeze upon impact with any surface they encounter, including the ground, trees, electrical wires, aircraft, and automobiles. The resulting ice, called glaze ice, can accumulate to a thickness of several centimeters and cover all exposed surfaces. The METAR code for freezing rain is FZRA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Winter storm</span> Low-temperature extreme weather events of high winds and freezing precipitation forms

A winter storm is an event in which wind coincides with varieties of precipitation that only occur at freezing temperatures, such as snow, mixed snow and rain, or freezing rain. In temperate continental and subarctic climates, these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season, but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well. A snowstorm with strong winds and other conditions meeting certain criteria is called a blizzard.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Precipitation</span> Product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity

In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and "precipitates" or falls. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but colloids, because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rime ice</span> Granular whitish deposit of ice formed by freezing fog

Rime ice forms when supercooled water droplets freeze onto surfaces. In the atmosphere, there are three basic types of rime ice:

Ice pellets or sleet is a form of precipitation consisting of small, hard, translucent balls of ice. Ice pellets are different from graupel, which is made of frosty white opaque rime, and from a mixture of rain and snow, which is a slushy liquid or semisolid. Ice pellets often bounce when they hit the ground or other solid objects, and make a higher-pitched "tap" when striking objects like jackets, windshields, and dried leaves, compared to the dull splat of liquid raindrops. Pellets generally do not freeze into other solid masses unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Graupel</span> Precipitation that forms when supercooled droplets of water freeze on a falling snowflake

Graupel, also called soft hail or snow pellets, is precipitation that forms when supercooled water droplets in air are collected and freeze on falling snowflakes, forming 2–5 mm (0.08–0.20 in) balls of crisp, opaque rime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Depth hoar</span>

Depth hoar, also called sugar snow or temperature gradient snow, are large snow-crystals occurring at the base of a snowpack that form when uprising water vapor deposits, or desublimates, onto existing snow crystals. Depth hoar crystals are large, sparkly grains with facets that can be cup-shaped and that are up to 10 mm in diameter. Depth hoar crystals bond poorly to each other, increasing the risk for avalanches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Precipitation types</span> Characters, formations, and phases of water condensed in the atmosphere

In meteorology, the different types of precipitation often include the character, formation, or phase of the precipitation which is falling to ground level. There are three distinct ways that precipitation can occur. Convective precipitation is generally more intense, and of shorter duration, than stratiform precipitation. Orographic precipitation occurs when moist air is forced upwards over rising terrain and condenses on the slope, such as a mountain.

The subnivean climate is the environment between fallen snow and terrain. This is the environment of many hibernal animals, as it provides insulation and protection from predators. The subnivean climate is formed by three different types of snow metamorphosis: destructive metamorphosis, which begins when snow falls; constructive metamorphosis, the movement of water vapor to the surface of the snowpack; and melt metamorphosis, the melting/sublimation of snow to water vapor and its refreezing in the snowpack. These three types of metamorphosis transform individual snowflakes into ice crystals and create spaces under the snow where small animals can move.

Rain and snow mixed or sleet is precipitation composed of a mixture of rain and partially melted snow. Unlike ice pellets, which are hard, and freezing rain, which is fluid until striking an object where it fully freezes, this precipitation is soft and translucent, but it contains some traces of ice crystals from partially fused snowflakes, also called slush. In any one location, it usually occurs briefly as a transition phase from rain to snow or vice-versa, but hits the surface before fully transforming. Its METAR code is RASN or SNRA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snowflake</span> Ice crystals that fall as snow

A snowflake is a single ice crystal that has achieved a sufficient size, and may have amalgamated with others, which falls through the Earth's atmosphere as snow. Each flake nucleates around a tiny particle in supersaturated air masses by attracting supercooled cloud water droplets, which freeze and accrete in crystal form. Complex shapes emerge as the flake moves through differing temperature and humidity zones in the atmosphere, such that individual snowflakes differ in detail from one another, but may be categorized in eight broad classifications and at least 80 individual variants. The main constituent shapes for ice crystals, from which combinations may occur, are needle, column, plate, and rime. Snow appears white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snow science</span> Interdisciplinary field of hydrology, mechanics and meteorology

Snow science addresses how snow forms, its distribution, and processes affecting how snowpacks change over time. Scientists improve storm forecasting, study global snow cover and its effect on climate, glaciers, and water supplies around the world. The study includes physical properties of the material as it changes, bulk properties of in-place snow packs, and the aggregate properties of regions with snow cover. In doing so, they employ on-the-ground physical measurement techniques to establish ground truth and remote sensing techniques to develop understanding of snow-related processes over large areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glossary of meteorology</span> List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in meteorology

This glossary of meteorology is a list of terms and concepts relevant to meteorology and atmospheric science, their sub-disciplines, and related fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditional symmetric instability</span>

Conditional symmetric instability, or CSI, is a form of convective instability in a fluid subject to temperature differences in a uniform rotation frame of reference while it is thermally stable in the vertical and dynamically in the horizontal. The instability in this case develop only in an inclined plane with respect to the two axes mentioned and that is why it can give rise to a so-called "slantwise convection" if the air parcel is almost saturated and moved laterally and vertically in a CSI area. This concept is mainly used in meteorology to explain the mesoscale formation of intense precipitation bands in an otherwise stable region, such as in front of a warm front. The same phenomenon is also applicable to oceanography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shower (precipitation)</span> Sudden and brief rain or snowfall

A shower is a mode of precipitation characterized by an abrupt start and end and by rapid variations in intensity. Often strong and short-lived, it comes from convective clouds, like cumulus congestus. A shower will produce rain if the temperature is above the freezing point in the cloud, or snow / ice pellets / snow pellets / hail if the temperature is below it at some point. In a meteorological observation, such as the METAR, they are noted SH giving respectively SHRA, SHSN, SHPL, SHGS and SHGR.

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Further reading