Cuban Democracy Act

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Cuban Democracy Act
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Other short titles
  • Armament Retooling and Manufacturing Support Act of 1992
  • Army National Guard Combat Readiness Reform Act of 1992
  • Cuban Democracy Act of 1992
  • Defense Conversion, Reinvestment, and Transition Assistance Act of 1992
  • Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992
  • Iran-Iraq Arms Non-Proliferation Act of 1992
  • Military Construction Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993
  • Panama Canal Commission Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993
  • Service Members Occupational Conversion and Training Act of 1992
  • Weapons of Mass Destruction Control Act of 1992
Long titleAn Act to authorize appropriations for fiscal year 1993 for military activities of the Department of Defense, for military construction, and for defense activities of the Department of Energy, to prescribe personnel strengths for fiscal year for the Armed Forces, to provide for defense conversion, and for other purposes.
NicknamesNational Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993
Enacted bythe 102nd United States Congress
EffectiveOctober 23, 1992
Citations
Public law 102-484
Statutes at Large 106  Stat.   2315 aka 106 Stat. 2575
Codification
Titles amended 22 U.S.C.: Foreign Relations and Intercourse
U.S.C. sections created 22 U.S.C. ch. 69 § 6001 et seq.
Legislative history

The Cuban Democracy Act (CDA), also known as the Torricelli Act or the Torricelli-Graham Bill, [1] was a bill introduced and sponsored by U.S. Congressman Robert Torricelli and aimed to tighten the U.S. embargo on Cuba. [2] It reimplemented the ban of U.S. subsidiaries in other countries from trading with Cuba, hindered the ability for ships docked within Cuban ports to travel to U.S. ports, and worked to circumvent other aspects of the embargo to provide humanitarian aid to Cuba in an attempt to draw the Cuban people closer to the United States. [2]

Contents

The act was passed as "A bill to promote U. S intervention through the application of sanctions directed at the Castro government and support for the Cuban people." [3] Congressman Torricelli stated that the act was intended to "wreak havoc on that island." [4]

Context

President Bill Clinton (left) talking to Jorge Mas Canosa, leader of the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) MasClinton.jpg
President Bill Clinton (left) talking to Jorge Mas Canosa, leader of the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF)

Since Fidel Castro flocked into the embrace of the Soviets for economic stronghold after the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States worked to cripple the Cuban economy and destabilize Castro's rule. [5] After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro led a “Special Period” in Cuban economics, generating some financial upturn as Cuba grappled with a lack of Soviet assistance. [6]  As a result, the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) worked with Floridian politicians Connie Mack III and Bob Graham to expand the embargo by banning subsidiary trade with Cuba, informally known as the Mack Amendment. [6] Congressman Torricelli of New Jersey also formed a political relationship with CANF president Jorge Mas Canosa, and it was Torricelli who then penned the Cuban Democracy Act in 1991. [1]

The CANF wished to work with Senators Mack and Graham due to the lack of action from President George H. W. Bush later in his first term, who opted for a more pragmatic, anti-embargo approach in a similar vein to the policies of Gerald Ford. [7] However, the 1992 presidential election caused Bush to sway towards a more hardline approach to Cuba, in an effort to win over the large Cuban American population in his favor from his main opponent, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton. [7]

Bush's change in faith of the Cuban Democracy Act was the result of his office at stake in addition to the ability for the president to suspend the act in the event of “national security,” creating a means of escape from the aspects Bush disagreed with, namely the Mack Amendment. [7] Despite Bush's efforts to pass the Cuban Democracy Act, Clinton still won the support of Mas Canosa and many in the Cuban-American community, yet he was not able to win the electoral support of Florida. [1]

Contents

Sanctions and the Mack Amendment (Track I)

The bill itself lays out America's criticism of the Castro government, noting that "The government of Fidel Castro has demonstrated consistent disregard for internationally accepted standards of human rights and for democratic values." [3] The first track of the bill tightened sanctions on the island and attacked countries that provided assistance to Cuba by denying said countries debt reduction or forgiveness. [7] In other words, Track I stipulated that, if a nation gave a certain amount of aid to Cuba, then the U.S. would cut off the same sum of aid to said nation. [8] Another aspect of the bill's first track was the Mack Amendment, tackling the trade between Cuba and U.S. subsidiaries in other countries, which generated $700 million (~$1.4 billion in 2023) in 1991 alone. [2] The Mack Amendment became effective in diverting needs to the island, as the bulk of trade with the banned subsidiaries consisted of food and medicine. [8]

Humanitarian Aid (Track II)

Deviating from the economic war on Cuba, the CDA's second track worked to provide aid to the Cuban people in an effort to destabilize Castro and put faith in the United States. [2] This included opening up exports for food and medicine, as well as allowing family remittances, postal services, and telecommunications to and from Cuba. [3] Bush's signing statement for the bill emphasized the public rationale for the second track of the bill by saying "Our policy and this bill allow for humanitarian donations of food and medicine to nongovernment organizations in Cuba, help that will get to the Cuban people. And it allows for improved communications between the United States and Cuba, so that all of you can maintain contact with family members." [9] While originally the bill included the exchange of educational services and news offices in both Havana and Washington, groups against Castro led congress to balk against these additions. [7]

Legacy

Domestic Reaction

Criticism

From the U.S. perspective, the New York Times argued that sanctions would only amplify Castro's fight against American hegemony in Latin America and put more faith and confidence in the regime. [10] The editorial additionally notes that the collapse of the Soviet Union and economy already had detrimental effects on Cuban trade that relied heavily on the Soviets. [10] In addition, Kam S. Wong from the University of Pennsylvania Law School argued in 1994 that the bill is in violation of international law along with foreign sovereign compulsion and crackdown on trade. [11]

Effects on the Clinton Administration

The Cuban Democracy Act both fostered and broke apart the relationship between Clinton and the CANF. [1] This was due to Mas Canosa's expectations regarding the position of the assistant secretary of state for Inter-American affairs, which instead was planned to go to Mario L. Baeza, an Afro-Cuban lawyer. [1] However, Baeza's distance from the Cuban-American community ultimately led to the CANF leading a campaign to thwart his appointment, leading to the instatement of Alexander F. Watson. [1] Once in office, Clinton utilized a loophole within the act that allowed him to suspend it under the guise of "national security." [7] This dodging of a law in order to avoid true implementation further frustrated Cuban-American groups. [7]

International Reaction

Only days after Bush signed the bill into law on October 23, the European Commission protested that the act violated the conventions of international trade. [12] Likewise, the United Kingdom used the Protection of Trading Interests Act 1980 as a means of political protest against the Mack Amendment specifically. [12] Canada and many Latin American nations also expressed concern and condemnation of the bill's implications on international trade with Cuba. [12]

This opposition manifested into a Cuban-sponsored resolution in the United Nations on ending the embargo shortly after the bill was signed. [12] The resolution was carefully written to create content with the international community, as many were still wary of Castro's track record but still wished to block the U.S.'s attempts to control trade between Cuba and other countries. [12]

See also

Related Research Articles

The island of Cuba was inhabited by various Amerindian cultures prior to the arrival of the explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492. After his arrival, Spain conquered Cuba and appointed Spanish governors to rule in Havana. The administrators in Cuba were subject to the Viceroy of New Spain and the local authorities in Hispaniola. In 1762–63, Havana was briefly occupied by Britain, before being returned to Spain in exchange for Florida. A series of rebellions between 1868 and 1898, led by General Máximo Gómez, failed to end Spanish rule and claimed the lives of 49,000 Cuban guerrillas and 126,000 Spanish soldiers. However, the Spanish–American War resulted in a Spanish withdrawal from the island in 1898, and following three and a half years of subsequent US military rule, Cuba gained formal independence in 1902.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helms–Burton Act</span> US federal law affecting Cuban economy

The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (Libertad) Act of 1996, Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law  104–114 (text)(PDF), 110 Stat. 785, 22 U.S.C. §§ 6021–6091) is a United States federal law which strengthens and continues the United States embargo against Cuba. It extended the territorial application of the initial embargo to apply to foreign companies trading with Cuba, and penalized foreign companies allegedly "trafficking" in property formerly owned by U.S. citizens but confiscated by Cuba after the Cuban revolution. It also covers property formerly owned by Cubans who have since become U.S. citizens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States embargo against Cuba</span> Ongoing restriction on trade with Cuba by the United States

The United States embargo against Cuba prevents US businesses, and businesses organized under US law or majority-owned by US citizens, from conducting trade with Cuban interests. It is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history. The US first imposed an embargo on the sale of arms to Cuba on March 14, 1958, during the Fulgencio Batista regime. Again on October 19, 1960, almost two years after the Cuban Revolution had led to the deposition of the Batista regime, the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized the US-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. On February 7, 1962, the embargo was extended to include almost all exports. The United Nations General Assembly has passed a resolution every year since 1992 demanding the end of the US economic embargo on Cuba, with the US and Israel being the only nations to consistently vote against the resolutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuban dissident movement</span> Political movement in Cuba

The Cuban dissident movement is a political movement in Cuba whose aim is to replace the current government with a liberal democracy. According to Human Rights Watch, the Marxist-Leninist Cuban government represses nearly all forms of political dissent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luis Posada Carriles</span> Cuban terrorist and CIA agent

Luis Clemente Posada Carriles was a Cuban exile militant and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agent. He was considered a terrorist by the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Government of Cuba, among others.

The Cuban American National Foundation is a foundation with the aim of assisting members of the Cuban community in Miami, Florida.

The Cuban–American lobby are various groups of Cuban exiles in the United States and their descendants who have historically influenced the United States' policy toward Cuba. In general usage, this refers to anti-Castro groups.

The Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations was a militant group responsible for a number of terrorist activities directed at the Cuban government following the Cuban Revolution. The United States government provided them with extensive financial and logistical support throughout their existence. It was founded by a group that included Orlando Bosch and Luis Posada Carriles, both of whom worked with the CIA at various times, and was composed chiefly of Cuban exiles opposed to the Castro government. It was formed in 1976 as an umbrella group for a number of anti-Castro militant groups. Its activities included a number of bombings and assassinations, including the killing of human-rights activist Orlando Letelier in Washington, D.C., and the bombing of Cubana Flight 455 which killed 73 people.

The Cuban government operates a national health system and assumes fiscal and administrative responsibility for the health care of all its citizens. All healthcare in Cuba is free to Cuban residents, although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs, of which the US embargo regime is a direct cause. There are no private hospitals or clinics as all health services are government-run. The current public health minister of Cuba is José Angel Portal Miranda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuba–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jorge Mas Canosa</span> American businessman

Jorge Lincoln Mas Canosa was a Cuban-American businessman who founded the Cuban American National Foundation and MasTec, a publicly traded company. Regarded within the United States as a powerful lobbyist on Cuban and anti-Castro political positions, he was labeled a "counterrevolutionary" by the Cuban Communist Party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuba–Venezuela relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between Cuba and Venezuela were established in 1902. The relationship deteriorated in the 1960s and Venezuela broke relations in late 1961 following the Betancourt Doctrine policy of not having ties with governments that had come to power by non-electoral means. A destabilizing factor was the Cuban support for the antigovernment guerrilla force that operates in remote rural areas. Venezuela broke off relations with Cuba after the Machurucuto invasion in 1967, when Cuban trained guerrillas landed in Venezuela seeking to recruit guerrillas and overthrow the government of Raúl Leoni. Relations were reestablished in 1974.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">María Elvira Salazar</span> American journalist & politician (born 1961)

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References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 LeoGrande, William M. (2014). Back channel to Cuba : the hidden history of negotiations between Washington and Havana. Peter Kornbluh. Chapel Hill. pp. 269–271. ISBN   978-1-4696-1763-3. OCLC   875742399.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  2. 1 2 3 4 Sweig, Julia (2016). Cuba : what everyone needs to know (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 162–164. ISBN   978-0-19-062038-7. OCLC   934628196.
  3. 1 2 3 "Cuban Democracy Act ('CDA')" (PDF). United States Code - Title 22: Foreign Relations and Intercourse. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 8, 2004.
  4. ↑ Franklin, Jane (August 30, 1994). "The politics behind Clinton's Cuba policy". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on 2012-06-15. Retrieved 2014-05-16.
  5. ↑ Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa 1959-1975. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN   0-8078-2647-2.
  6. 1 2 Gibbs, Jessica. 2011. US Policy Towards Cuba: Since the Cold War. London: Taylor & Francis Group. Accessed September 28, 2021. ProQuest Ebook Central.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cuban Democracy Act. (2010). In T. M. Leonard, Encyclopedia of Cuban-United States relations. McFarland. Credo Reference: http://0-search.credoreference.com.dewey2.library.denison.edu/content/entry/mcfcubus/cuban_democracy_act/0?institutionId=4607
  8. 1 2 Salim, Lamrani (2013). The economic war against Cuba a historical and legal perspective on the US blockade. Monthly Review Press. p. 32. ISBN   978-1-58367-341-6. OCLC   931022681.
  9. ↑ "Remarks On Signing the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 in Miami, Florida". Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents. 28: 2071–2073. November 2, 1992 – via HeinOnline.
  10. 1 2 "Opinion | Making Poor Cubans Suffer More". The New York Times. 1992-06-15. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  11. ↑ Wong, Kam S. (1994). "THE CUBAN DEMOCRACY ACT OF 1992: THE EXTRATERRITORIAL SCOPE OF SECTION 1706(a)". University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Business. 14: 651–682 – via HeinOnline.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Wilner, Gabriel M (1993). "International Reaction to the Cuban Democracy Act". Florida Journal of International Law. 8: 401–14 – via HeinOnline.
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