Cycle of erosion

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The geographic cycle, or cycle of erosion, is an idealized model that explains the development of relief in landscapes. [1] The model starts with the erosion that follows uplift of land above a base level and ends, if conditions allow, in the formation of a peneplain. [1] Landscapes that show evidence of more than one cycle of erosion are termed "polycyclical". [1] The cycle of erosion and some of its associated concepts have, despite their popularity, been a subject of much criticism.

Contents

Description

William Morris Davis, the originator of the model, divided it into stages whose transition is gradual similar to the human life i.e. Youth Stage, Mature Stage and Old Stage. [2] The model begins with an uplifted sate of landscape. [3] Then Davis defined a youthful stage where river incision or vertical erosion is the dominant process shaping the landscape. During the youthful stage height, differences between uplands and valley bottoms increase rapidly. The youthful stage is followed by a mature stage in which height differences between valley bottoms and uplands are at their greatest. In the mature stage, slope decline becomes a more important phenomenon as the lateral erosion dominates, [4] and uplands lose height more rapidly than rivers incise, effectively diminishing relief. In the very latest stage, erosion has acted so long that the landscape, despite its original height, is reduced into a rolling lowland. That landscape of low relief is called a peneplain and may contain residual heights standing out from the general level. The peneplain can be uplifted, which starts a second erosion cycle. [5]

Davis acknowledged that a full cycle was a special case and that initial uplift was not necessarily rapid or followed by a prolonged period of quiescence. However, as Walther Penck pointed out, Davis and his followers usually used a rapid uplift and quiescence approach to explain landscapes. [6] This means that the model, as understood by most, assumes rapid and episodic tectonic uplift. [7] Another characteristic of the model is that slopes evolve by decline, with initially-steep slopes worn out by erosion forming successively-gentler slopes. [7] [upper-alpha 1] Weaknesses of the model are that it is mostly theoretical and deductive in nature and it does not take into account the complexity of tectonic movements or climate change. The nature of surface processes is also poorly represented by the model. [7] The model in its original form is intended to explain relief development in temperate landscapes in which erosion by running water is assumed to be of prime importance. [5] [7] Nevertheless, the cycle of erosion has been extended, with modifications, into arid, semi-arid, savanah, selva, glacial, coastal, karst and periglacial areas. [7] [10] Writing in 1950 Louis C. Peltier claimed the cycle of erosion in maritime and boreal climates were the only one that had not been described in detail. [10]

Variants of the cycle of erosion [7]
EnvironmentProposed byDetails
Arid Davis, 1905At the beginning of the cycle of erosion in arid climate there are numerous small basins to where material is washed during the scarce rainfall events. In the next stage (youthful stage) valleys are developed and highlands dissected by these. Gentle slopes and basins accumulated material derived from the highlands. In the mature stage drainage basins coalesce. At the end, a stage is reached in which the terrain has lost much of its relief and deflation hollows interfere with the drainage systems, breaking it up into local systems. During all stages sand and dust might be exported by wind to other landscapes. [11]
Selva Cotton, 1942 [10] Rainforest hinders the erosion of hillsopes. [10] Hillslopes have thick soil. [10]
Semi-arid Cotton, 1942 [10] Forms together with the savannah cycle intermediate cycle between the "normal" and arid arid variants. [10]
Savanna Cotton, 1942 [10] Associated with inselbergs and pediplains. [10] [12] Rivers are not incized enough to erode fresh rock, eroding instead "red soils" and weathered regolith. [12] Flattish surfaces in savanna landscapes are eroded by river's lateral migration and by regularly flooding that leads the washing away of fines. [12] The over-all effect a gradual loweing of this surfaces. Large inselbergs are polycyclic, but smaller tor are more recent features. [12]
Coastal Johnson, 1919Alternate models are proposed for shore profiles: one for shore profiles of emergence and another for shore profiles of submergence. A complementary model can be applied to shorelines where different parts might have undergone submergence and emergence. [13]
Glacial Davis, 1900The glacial cycle of erosion deals with mountainous regions and lacks an old stage since Davis argues that nothing more developed than mature glacial landscapes exists at present. A glacial cycle of erosion begins with a pre-glacial landscape. Over time valley glaciers erode the underlying rock at different rates, creating valleys and glaciers that are more entrenched than others. As time passes the less-entrenched glaciers reach the same levels of entrenchment as the more entrenched ones, since the deeper a glacier erodes, its erosive power diminishes. In a mature stage, valleys form smooth-sided troughs. [14]
Karst Cvijić, 1918The cycle of erosion in karst regions has three phases. At first, the upper parts of fractures are dissolved, enlarged and filled with water. Normal fluvial valleys develop on the surface, small poljes might exist. Subsequently, re-routing of water by the growth of a karst system disorganized the fluvial drainage pattern, with valley bottoms developing large dolines and uvalas. Ridges between uvalas gradually disappear as those landforms coalesce. If the bedrock is underlain by insoluble rock, normal fluvial valleys will slowly re-appear once the underground river systems reach the insoluble rock. In the end, soluble rocks appear only as isolated hills. Contrary to Davis's original cycle of erosion, the karst cycle does not end in the formation of a peneplain. [15]
Periglacial Troll, 1948 [16] [10]
Peltier, 1950		The periglacial cycle of erosion begins with a non-periglaciated landscape. Once-periglaciated mass wasting of regolith exposes bedrock in the upper slopes. The outcrops are then subject to frost weathering that makes slopes retreat forming extensive blockfields at the base of the bedrock areas. At a later stage, solifluction wears down summits and fills in topographic lows. [17] [upper-alpha 2]

History

William Morris Davis (1850-1934), the creator of the model William Morris Davis.jpg
William Morris Davis (1850–1934), the creator of the model

Background

There had been some ideas on cyclical erosion in the Graeco-Roman world and then in the Islamic world and Europe during the Middle Ages. However the immediate influences of William Morris Davis, the creator of the cycle of erosion model, were 19th century American explorers. The end of the American Civil War (1861–1865) led to a resumption of the exploration of the western United States. Three explorers, John Wesley Powell, Clarence Edward Dutton and Grove Karl Gilbert, wrote about the geomorphology and geology in the landscapes they encountered. It was from these works that Davis borrowed many concepts used to construct the model. [18] [upper-alpha 3]

It has been argued that Davis was also influenced by ideas from the field of biology, especially the Neo-Lamarckian thought that was current in the late 19th-century United States. It is thought that Davis received some of this Neo-Lamarckian influence from his tutor, Nathaniel Shaler. Other biological theories that may have shaped the cycle of erosion are those of orthogenesis and recapitulation both of which are linked to Neo-Lamarckianism. Darwin's evolution theory was a lesser influence relative to Neo-Lamarckism. The impact of these ideas can be hinted in the models' employment of the concept of "evolution" rather than "change", implying a predictable direction of landscape and landform change. [19] It has been argued that "Davis consciously applied Darwinism to landscape". [20]

Early acclaim and criticism

Davis conceived the cycle of erosion model in the 1880s while studying the Appalachians in Pennsylvania and Virginia. [18] [20] Davis wrote down the Cycle of erosion theory in detail for the first time in 1889. [20] More fully developed by 1900 it received wide acclaim, but was never universally accepted. [1] [7] The initial enthusiasm and strength of the cycle of erosion model has been attributed to various causes. First, the model provided a framework to study areas and epochs in Earth history where erosion is the dominant process. Second, the model fitted well into the grand evolutionary thought that had emerged in the 19th century with Darwin's evolution theory. [21] Lastly, some popularity can be attributed to Davis's lucid writing style. The model achieved its greatest popularity in the 1900–39 period when numerous studies on denudation chronology based on the model were published. In these studies usually two to five erosion cycles were identified. The approach of doing denudation chronology with the cycle of erosion model lost popularity from the 1930s onward. [21] Arguably this was so because the approach did not provide any unforeseeable insights. An increasing number of geomorphologists had begun to study processes happening in the present and not in the past as done with the cycle of erosion model. These process geomorphologists soon realized some of their observations were at odds with Davis's model. Other geomorphologists turned away from the cycle of erosion to work instead on climatic or tectonic geomorphology. [21]

The model spread fast. In 1901 Hans Reusch was using it to explain the undulating plateau of southern Norway. [22] [23] Very much influenced by Davis Walter Wråk moved to study the relief of the northern Scandinavian Mountains, describing among other things the Borsu surface. [24] The first study of China's topography using the model was published in 1907 by B. Willis and co-workers. [25] The idea of the cycle of erosion was disseminated among college and university students with a series of textbooks published in the 1890s and 1900s. [20] According to Sheldon Judson up to Second World War reports on regional geology tended to include brief mentions of the local cycle of erosion and of peneplanization. [20]

While the model was at first widely accepted among Anglo-Saxon scholars, [7] in Continental Europe it met some resistance with German scholars Albrecht and Walther Penck, Siegfried Passarge and Alfred Hettner standing out as early opponents to the model. [26] Despite Davis's efforts, which included translating his work into German, being a visiting professor at Berlin and touring much of Europe, the cycle of erosion never did take firm root in Germany. [18] Walther Penck came to originate an alternative model with its own set of tenets. Walther's ideas were published posthumously in 1924 by his father, Albrecht. In Walther's model, relief is shaped as a function of the denudation/uplift rate. [18] Davis, a friend of Walther's father, [27] was critical of Walther's new model. Davis's review of Walther Penck's second publication on the subject left a distorted view of Penck's ideas among later workers. This is because Davis misunderstood and mis-translated parts of the paper, therefore Davis is not an adequate critic of Penck's work. [28]

In France the cycle of erosion theory was first spread by Albert de Lapparent. In general its reception in France was mixed with Émile Haug giving it limited attention and Paul Vidal de La Blache adopting it without reservations. [29] Other notable French geographers influenced by Davis ideas on the cycle of erosion are Emmanuel de Martonne and Henri Baulig. [29] Geomorphology in France developed into two schools, one based on geographers who adopted Davisian thought and another based on engineering geology with connections to hydraulics and mining. [29]

Intensified criticism (1945–1974)

Richard Chorley (1927-2002), a geomorphologist known for his criticism of the cycle of erosion. In Cliff Ollier's words "'Davis bashing' was a theme" for him. Richard Chorley.jpg
Richard Chorley (1927–2002), a geomorphologist known for his criticism of the cycle of erosion. In Cliff Ollier's words "'Davis bashing' was a theme" for him.

In 1960 geomorphologist Sheldon Judson noted that American geographers had largely abandoned the concept and moved to study landscape and landforms from a process and statistical point of view. [20] Eiju Yatsu opined, however, that despite the intention of many geomorphologists to abandon Davisian ideas after the Second World War, many ended up returning to them with some modifications. [31]

An alternative cycle theory was proposed by Lester Charles King in the 1960s. [1] While King's ideas were an attempt at refuting Davis's cycle of erosion they were themselves of cyclical nature and contributed to ushering in a wave of criticism in 1960s against both his and Davis's models. [7] [32] This criticism has been called "Davis bashing" by Cliff Ollier and constitutes to Ollier the ridicule of cyclical theories in geomorphology without any alternative model being proposed. [32] Since Davis' ideas were being discredited other areas of research, like that of climatic geomorphology, were attacked by their perceived association to it. [33]

The notions of time, uplift, slope and drainage density evolution in the erosion cycle have been criticized. [21] Further the validity of some whole concepts associated with the cycle of erosion have been questioned including stream grade, [21] slope decline, [upper-alpha 4] base level [21] and most of all that of peneplains. [21] [upper-alpha 5]

Writing in 1971 geomorphologist Ronald Flemal summarized the situation as follows: [21]

Currently geomorphologists are divided into three camps: those who still adhere to Davisian concepts, either in the original or a modified form; those who desire to replace Davisian ideas by a different cyclic erosional model; and those who reject cyclic erosion completely.

Modern status

Despite considerable criticism the cycle of erosion model has remained part of the science of geomorphology. [36] The model or theory has never been proved wrong, [36] but neither has it been proven. [37] The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines. [36] In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies, and is thus an important concept in the science of historical geology. [38] While acknowledging its shortcomings modern geomorphologists Andrew Goudie and Karna Lidmar-Bergström have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively. [1] [7] Writing in 2007 Anthony Orme evaluates that: [18]

"stripped of its evolutionary baggage, the Davisian Cycle of Erosion had merit as an interpretive exercise, and indeed still has merit as an end-member in a range of possible temporal scenarios for Earth’s surface development."


See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Alternative models of slope evolution are parallel slope and scarp retreat, championed by Lester Charles King, and slope replacement first proposed by Walther Penck. [8] King considered scarp retreat a dominant process across the globe and claimed that slope decline was a special case of slope development seen only in very weak rocks that could not maintain a scarp. [9] The modern understanding is that the evolution of slopes is much more complex than the classical models of decline, replacement, and retreat imply. [8]
  2. ↑ An earlier cyclical model on the formation of cryoplanation terraces was proposed in 1943 by Soviet scientists S.G. Boch and I.I. Krasnov. [17] Peltier's model was published long after the cycle of erosion was out of vougue among geomorphologists. [18]
  3. ↑ The influence of Gilbert on Davis has been labelled "ironic" by Anthony R. Orme "because Gilbert’s focus on geomorphic processes was later identified by many as the antithesis of Davisian geomorphology". [18]
  4. ↑ King argued that in scarps and tablelands slope decline was "either non-existent or impotent". [34]
  5. ↑ Lester Charles King, who coined the competing concept of pediplains, wrote: A peneplain in the Davisian sense, resulting from slope reduction and downwearing, does not exist in nature. It should be redefined as "an imaginary landform." [35]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Morris Davis</span> American geographer, geologist, geomorphologist and meteorologist

William Morris Davis was an American geographer, geologist, geomorphologist, and meteorologist, often called the "father of American geography".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomorphology</span> Scientific study of landforms

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peneplain</span> Low-relief plain formed by protracted erosion

In geomorphology and geology, a peneplain is a low-relief plain formed by protracted erosion. This is the definition in the broadest of terms, albeit with frequency the usage of peneplain is meant to imply the representation of a near-final stage of fluvial erosion during times of extended tectonic stability. Peneplains are sometimes associated with the cycle of erosion theory of William Morris Davis, but Davis and other workers have also used the term in a purely descriptive manner without any theory or particular genesis attached.

Walther Penck was a geologist and geomorphologist known for his theories on landscape evolution. Penck is noted for criticizing key elements of the Davisian cycle of erosion, concluding that the process of uplift and denudation occur simultaneously, at gradual and continuous rates. Penck's idea of parallel slope retreat led to revisions of Davis's cycle of erosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Base level</span> Lowest limit for erosion processes

In geology and geomorphology a base level is the lower limit for an erosion process. The modern term was introduced by John Wesley Powell in 1875. The term was subsequently appropriated by William Morris Davis who used it in his cycle of erosion theory. The "ultimate base level" is the surface that results from projection of the sea level under landmasses. It is to this base level that topography tends to approach due to erosion, eventually forming a peneplain close to the end of a cycle of erosion.

Denudation is the geological process in which moving water, ice, wind, and waves erode the Earth's surface, leading to a reduction in elevation and in relief of landforms and landscapes. Although the terms erosion and denudation are used interchangeably, erosion is the transport of soil and rocks from one location to another, and denudation is the sum of processes, including erosion, that result in the lowering of Earth's surface. Endogenous processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and tectonic uplift can expose continental crust to the exogenous processes of weathering, erosion, and mass wasting. The effects of denudation have been recorded for millennia but the mechanics behind it have been debated for the past 200 years and have only begun to be understood in the past few decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albrecht Penck</span> German geologist and geographer

Albrecht Penck was a German geographer and geologist and the father of Walther Penck.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Richard Chorley</span> English geographer (1927–2002)

Richard John Chorley was an English geographer, and Professor of Geography at Cambridge University, known as leading figure in quantitative geography in the late 20th century, who played an instrumental role in bringing in the use of systems theory to geography.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pediplain</span> Extensive plain formed by the coalescence of pediments

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sheet erosion</span>

Sheet erosion or sheet wash is the even erosion of substrate along a wide area. It occurs in a wide range of settings such as coastal plains, hill slopes, floodplains, beaches, savanna plains and semi-arid plains. Water moving fairly uniformly with a similar thickness over a surface is called sheet flow, and is the cause of sheet erosion. Sheet erosion implies that any flow of water that causes the erosion is not canalized. If a hillslope surface contains many irregularities, sheet erosion may give way to erosion along small channels called rills, which can then converge forming gullies. However, sheet erosion may occur despite some limited unevenness in the sheet flow arising from clods of earth, rock fragments, or vegetation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marjorie Sweeting</span> British geomorphologist

Marjorie Mary Sweeting, was a British geomorphologist specializing in karst phenomena. Sweeting had gained extensive knowledge on various topographies and landscapes by travelling around the world to places such as Greece, Australia, Czechoslovakia, United States, Canada, South Africa, Belize, and most notably China. She published Karst Landforms, and Karst in China: its Geomorphology and Environment. The latter is the first comprehensive Western account of China's karst, and one of the first western published works on the karst found within China, despite being a male dominated field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strandflat</span> Type of landform found in high-latitude areas

Strandflat is a landform typical of the Norwegian coast consisting of a flattish erosion surface on the coast and near-coast seabed. In Norway, strandflats provide room for settlements and agriculture, constituting important cultural landscapes. The shallow and protected waters of strandflats are valued fishing grounds that provide sustenance to traditional fishing settlements. Outside Norway proper, strandflats can be found in other high-latitude areas, such as Antarctica, Alaska, the Canadian Arctic, the Russian Far North, Greenland, Svalbard, Sweden, and Scotland.

Lester Charles King (1907–1989) was an English geologist and geomorphologist known for his theories on scarp retreat. He offered a very different view of the origin of continental landscaping than that of William Morris Davis. Studying at university in New Zealand King was a disciple of Charles Cotton who was heavily influenced by Davis. While King's ideas were an attempt at refuting Davis' cycle of erosion they were themselves of cyclical nature and contributed to what Cliff Ollier has called "Davis bashing" — the ridicule of cyclical theories in geomorphology, in particular Davis' ones. Critics did however not propose alternative models. For him, the weathering of physical factors in arid areas causes the erosion of the hills, the deposition of the weathered material (pediments) and the deposition of these material in lower altitudes, contributing to the formation of the pediplain. He was also an early proponent of continental drift, having lectured on this matter at a number of U.S. universities during a tour in 1958.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sub-Cambrian peneplain</span> Ancient, extremely flat, erosion surface

The sub-Cambrian peneplain is an ancient, extremely flat, erosion surface (peneplain) that has been exhumed and exposed by erosion from under Cambrian strata over large swathes of Fennoscandia. Eastward, where this peneplain dips below Cambrian and other Lower Paleozoic cover rocks. The exposed parts of this peneplain are extraordinarily flat with relief of less than 20 m. The overlying cover rocks demonstrate that the peneplain was flooded by shallow seas during the Early Paleozoic. Being the oldest identifiable peneplain in its area the Sub-Cambrian peneplain qualifies as a primary peneplain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleic surface</span> Erosion surface in Southern Norway

The paleic surface or palaeic surface is an erosion surface of gentle slopes that exist in South Norway. Parts of it are a continuation of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain and Muddus Plains found further east or equivalent to the strandflat coastal plains of Norway. Hardangervidda, a particularly flat and elevated part of the Paleic surface formed in the Miocene at sea level.

In geology and geomorphology a paleosurface is a surface made by erosion of considerable antiquity. Paleosurfaces might be flat or uneven in some cases having considerable relief. Flat and large paleosurfaces —that is planation surfaces— have higher potential to be preserved than small and irregular surfaces and are thus the most studied kind of paleosurfaces. Irregular paleosurfaces, albeit usually smaller than flat ones, occur across the globe, one example being the Sudetes etchsurfaces. In the case of peneplains it is argued that they become paleosurfaces once they are detached from the base level they grade to.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climatic geomorphology</span>

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Hillslope evolution is the changes in the erosion rates, erosion styles and form of slopes of hills and mountains over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sub-Mesozoic hilly peneplains</span> Landscape in Scandinavia of undulating hills and joint valleys

The Sub-Mesozoic hilly peneplains or Sub-Mesozoic hilly relief is a landscape in Scandinavia made up of undulating hills and joint valleys and occasional kaolinized bedrock in valley bottoms. The landscape formed in the Mesozoic Era and was eventually drowned by the sea during the Campanian transgression and covered by a thick blanket of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. Later erosion of the cover rocks partly re-exposed this landscape. During the Quaternary epoch the re-exposed Mesozoic hilly relief escaped major glacier erosion being only surficially scoured in parts.

A piedmonttreppen or piedmont benchland is a conceived landform consisting in a succession of benches at different heights and that forms in sequence during the uplift of a geological dome. The concept was first proposed in a posthumous publication by Walther Penck in 1924.

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  27. ↑ Chorley et al. 2005, p. 571
  28. ↑ Simons, Martin (1962), "The morphological analysis of landforms: A new review of the work of Walther Penck (1888–1923)", Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers), 31 (31): 1–14, doi:10.2307/621083, JSTOR   621083
  29. 1 2 3 Giusti, Christian (2004). "Géologues et géographes français face à la théorie davisienne (1896-1909) : retour sur "l'intrusion" de la géomorphologie dans la géographie" [On the adoption of the Davisian theory by French geographers and its rejection by geologists (1896-1909): birth of an ideological watershed in the Earth sciences]. Géomorphologie (in French) (3): 241–254.
  30. ↑ Ollier, Cliff (2014). "Some Principles in the Study of Plantion Surfaces". In Rabassa, Jorge; Ollier, Cliff (eds.). Gondwana Landscapes in southern South America. Springer. pp. 47–48. ISBN   9789400777026.
  31. ↑ Yatsu, Eiju (2002). Fantasia in Geomorphology. Tokyo: Sozosha. p. 18. ISBN   4-88156-084-0.
  32. 1 2 Ollier, Cliff (1995). "Classics in physical geography revisited". Progress in Physical Geography . 19 (3): 371–377. Bibcode:1995PrPG...19..371O. doi:10.1177/030913339501900305. S2CID   128623098.
  33. ↑ Thomas, Michael F. (2004). "Tropical geomorphology". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Routledge. pp. 1063–1069.
  34. ↑ King, Lester (1968). "Scarps and Tablelands". Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie . 12: 114–115.
  35. ↑ King, L.C. (1953). "Canons of landscape evolution". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 64 (7): 721–752. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1953)64[721:cole]2.0.co;2. Archived from the original on 2017-08-21. Retrieved 2017-08-21.
  36. 1 2 3 Slaymaker, Olav (2004). "Geomorphic evolution". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Routledge. pp. 420–422.
  37. ↑ Roy, Andre. Contemporary Meanings in Physical Geography: From What to Why?. p. 5.
  38. ↑ Jones, David K.C. (2004). "Denudation chronology". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Routledge. pp. 244–248.

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