Family homelessness

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Homeless child pictured sleeping rough with what appears to be their father. Homeless child India 20009.jpg
Homeless child pictured sleeping rough with what appears to be their father.

Family homelessness refers to a family unit (often blood related) who do not have access to long term accommodation due to various circumstances such as socioeconomic status, access to resources and relationship breakdowns. [1] In some Western countries, such as the United States, family homelessness is a new form of poverty, and a fast growing group of the homelessness population. [2] [3] Some American researchers argue that family homelessness is the inevitable result of imbalanced “low-income housing ratio” where there are more low-income households than there are low-cost housing units. [4] A study in 2018[ specify ] projected a total of 56,342 family households were recognized as homeless. Roughly 16,390 of these people were living in a place not meant for human habitation. [5] It is believed[ by whom? ] that homeless families make up about a third of the United States’ population, with generally women being the lead of the household. [6]

Contents

While scholars differ on conceptualizations of homelessness, whether it is a just temporary state through which people pass or if it is a permanent trait that emanates from individual characteristics, studies indicate for families, homelessness is a temporary state that is often resolved by the provision of subsidized housing. [7] It has been studied that most homeless families stay in homeless shelters for only a short time, and when they exit they typically do not return. About 20 percent have longer stays in shelters, but only a small number of families have repeat stays. [8]

Contributing Factors to Family Homelessness

Homeless Family from the Philippines Poor and homeless.jpg
Homeless Family from the Philippines

There are four main factors that increase the chance of a family becoming homeless, these factors are: political, economic, social and environmental. [1] The ability for individuals to have a stable income, access to resources and services or the ‘economic’ factors are defining in determining the homelessness status of a family.

Social Factors

The social factors that contribute to family homelessness often refer to domestic violence or relationship breakdowns, inadequate education, poor social relationships and connections, as well as decreased opportunities in life. [9] Social conditions are important in understanding what can cause families to become homeless, such as if a family or individuals have a low level of educational attainment, or decreased connection with their community. This can create difficulty to access support services when in crisis or decrease their ability to secure employment. [9] Moreover, the access low socio-economic families have to support networks and services is crucial in retaining stable housing. These support networks and services are provided by non-government organisations and included in government policies. [10]  

Economic Factors

A significant problem that can arise from low socio-economic families is meeting the demands of higher costs of living in countries such as Australia that can have an expensive and competitive housing market. In Australia between 2005 and 2015 the median property prices grew by almost twice of what they were previously. These increased property houses makes it difficult for low-income households such as those reliant on a singular income and single-parent households to secure stable and affordable housing, increasing their risk of becoming homeless. [11] This is a significant problem in the United States of America due to the vast majority of the housing market being privately funded, whilst economic stability decreases, meaning vulnerable families such as those of low socioeconomic background are at an increased risk of family homelessness. [1] In today's modern economy, with increased prices of living, single mothers are more disproportionately impacted as they only have one flow of income to support: rent, mortgage payments, medical expenses and education expenses. [12]

Political Factors and Demographics

Demographics particularly aspects concerning gender, marital status and ethnicity are heavily apparent in trends regarding family homelessness.  Data analysed from Voices From the Street: Exploring the Realities of Family Homelessness, those at risk of family homeless often include single mothers, women, ethnic minorities and those living in a household where there are more than two children under the age of two. [12]

Political factors such as the welfare support provided by the government and the stability of the political system(corruption, economic status) can contribute to a family becoming homeless. [13] Countries such as the U.S. whilst may have economic stability as a whole, can contain instances of family homelessness due to the lack of welfare programs that support families in need. [14] For example, the United States of America has a weakened system of support for families of low socioeconomic status, as there is a lack of subsidised housing, minimal financial welfare payments and there are few government policies that provide adequate social security measures to support families in crisis. [14]   In India, political factors are evident in contributing to the high rates of family homelessness, as the government's policies in regards to housing revolves around ensuring the aesthetics of the city. [15] The government of India in 2017 evicted 260,000 people to remove slums(informal versions of houses that are often overcrowded) in order to retain a sense of beauty to the major urban areas of India.

The lack of affordability for housing poses as a challenge for poor people and their ability to maintain housing. Rising costs in housing is one of the many factors in homelessness. [16] An estimated amount of 22% to 57% of all homeless women who report domestic violence note that it was the immediate cause of their homelessness. [17] Addiction plays another large role in homelessness for families. Addiction disturbs functioning families and uproots those living productively. Seeking out substances becomes priority over bill paying, which results in loss of housing, such as eviction. [18] Families without homes contribute to the large number of children in foster care. [19] Child victims of homeless families are shown to suffer more with developmental difficulties such as communication and are predisposed to other mental disorders compared to other families who have low income, yet remained housed. [20] Homeless children pose serious problems when it comes to their success and their future. Such problems include hunger, poor nutrition, developmental delays, anxiety, depression, behavioral problems, and educational underachievement. [21] Social isolation is thought to be more a consequence than a cause of family homelessness. [22]

Conditions of Family Homelessness

Family homelessness, similar to other forms and categories of homelessness often contain more challenges associated with living such as access to adequate health care, social services, employment, shelter and basic necessities. [9]

Family homelessness is not only impactful for individuals economically, but can also create a strain on their health, as due to decreased living standards and means to access medication and health care providers, it can create vulnerability in regards to their health, putting them at risk for contracting infections and worsening pre-existing health conditions. [23] Moreover, being homeless can lower life expectancy, as the Australian Medical Journal states that in some cases, there can be a 30-year age gap in life expectancy between those who are homeless and those who are not [23] Moreover, with decreased stable shelter (particularly families who are living without shelter) have increased risk of catching viruses and infections when outbreaks and epidemics/pandemics occur. For example, with the COVID-19 pandemic there was grave concern for the homeless and their protection against the virus as there is decreased sanitation and hygiene due to limited access to necessities and resources. Homeless shelters that homeless families utilise can increase risk of contracting viruses and infections due to the often overcrowding of these shelters, particularly in highly populated areas such as Los Angeles California that has over 40,000 people living in homeless shelters. [24] Children experiencing family homelessness are also at an increased risk of developing infections, asthma and skin conditions due to lack of medical intervention, as week as living in exposed environments with poor hygiene and sanitation. [12]

Families who struggle with homelessness often have difficulty with social conditions, as they can be disconnected from mainstream society due to their socioeconomic and living status. Social conditions of family homelessness refer to access to social support services, education, skills and training (often those related to employment). Moreover, families who are homeless through their living conditions are often more exposed to crime, alcoholism, violence and drug use. [9] According to several studies conducted by various academic journals, children who experience homelessness can often have trouble adapting to new environments in adulthood [25] and are at higher risk for experiencing trauma and abuse, thus identifying the long-term impacts of the social conditions of family homelessness can have on children and adolescents. [9] [26] Moreover, those who are classified as homeless are not only disconnected from social support networks, but also from meaningful daily interactions with others such as those beyond their immediate family, friends, and their local community. This is attributed to lack of communication devices as well as many homeless families being isolated due to fear of judgement as well as alienation and marginalisation. [27]

A consequence of the conditions that family homelessness can have on individuals, particularly children is delays in cognitive and social development. [1] Due to limited access to medical resources caused by lack of finances, pregnant mothers experiencing homelessness particularly single mothers do not receive the prenatal care required. [1] The effect of inadequate prenatal care on the infant can result in low birth weights, greater chance for hospitalisaiton and development of asthma. [1] Studies analysed in the book Supporting Families Experiencing Homelessness: Current Practices and Future Directions [1] detail that infants who are raised in family homelessness, particularly families living in shelters often develop issues pertaining to attachment and social development. This is partly caused by the environment of shelters which do not meet basic requirements for an infant to develop at a normal rate due to its conditions such as overcrowding, and lack of stability in relationships as an infant needs a clear circle of caregivers in order to develop socially. [1]

Family Homelessness Around the World

Australia

A problem that can arise from low socio-economic families is meeting the demands of higher costs of living in countries such as Australia that can have an expensive and competitive housing market. [11] In Australia between 2005 and 2015 the median property prices grew by almost twice of what they were previously, increasing a low socioeconomic family's risk of becoming homeless. [11]

America

Family homelessness in America is a vast and widespread issue with school-aged children making up one million of America's homeless population (Donley, Crisafi, Mullins, & Wright, 2017, p. 48). Moreover, family homelessness has become of particular concern with the discussion of homelessness, as family homelessness is the fastest growing sector of the homelessness population as of 2013, comprising 36% of the homeless population. [12] Within industrialized nations, the numbers of homeless families in the United States are at the top. Roughly 1.6 million youth will experience homelessness throughout a one year span. One in thirty children in the U.S. have or will experience homelessness. [28]

Most frequently, a homeless family in a shelter will be a mother with her children. The mother in these situations has less than a 50% chance of graduating high school, and usually have suffered from either physical or mental abuse. Usually these children are still at a very young age, not having the ability to venture out and provide for themselves. Many of the homeless shelters directed for families will not allow an adult male into the premises, causing the split of some families who had previously stuck together.

The ethnicity of the individuals in these family shelters ranges by percentages. The most common homeless families caucasion(white) Americans. African Americans hold 14% of the population in total, but 40% when it comes to homelessness. It has been shown that racial minorities tend to have a larger number of homeless individuals when compared to their population in general. [29]

Asia

Family Homelessness in Asia is evident throughout the continent due to a combination of environmental, political and social factors that limits an at risk's family access to suitable housing. [13] Countries in Asia and the Pacific such as India and Cambodia have above normal rates of family homelessness, partially caused by the exacerbated poverty existing in these countries. [13] According to the Homeless World Cup Foundation, 73 million families in India lack access to suitable housing due to lack of government programs to elevate family homelessness, as well as the widespread poverty evident in the country. [15] Countries in Asia such as India, often have weakened government support for families struggling with homelessness due to the belief in a class/caste system that discourages those in homelessness as it does not align with the social beliefs held by the government and a portion of the population. [13] Moreover, environmental conditions are also influencing in the homelessness status of families in Asia due to the difficulties associated with the climate. [15] Countries such as Cambodia are highly susceptible to natural disasters such as monsoons and droughts due to the moist and tropical climate. [15] The destruction caused by these natural disasters can displace families due to a lack of shelter and can elevate the pre-existing poverty as plains and crops that are used for agricultural production are often damaged during natural disasters. [15]

Africa

Africa is a continent that experiences high rates of family homelessness due to widespread poverty, conflict and harsh environmental conditions that impact living standards and access to basic necessities. [15] South Africa is a country within Africa that experiences high rates of family homelessness as economic inequality within the country is evident as 79% of the population live under the poverty line, as well as an unemployment rate of 28%. With minimal financial security, access to basic necessities such as food and water are limited, family homelessness has become a common occurrence. Family homelessness impacts children in South Africa, as children not only have poor access to health care, but many are unable to attend school. [30]

Support and Resources

Accommodation

Families who struggle with homelessness are placed into certain types of accommodation such as ‘crisis’ or ‘short term’ accommodation by social welfare services [31] as described by Johnson and Watson on page 213. Crisis and short-term accommodation include refuges and shelters, where residency is based on a temporary basis until homeless families can be moved into ‘transitional housing’. [31] Transitional housing is created with the intent to ease the transition into independent and sustainable  long-term residency. [31] These accommodation services are often heavily subsidised as those accessing the accommodation programs often do not have the means to meet market rent prices. [31] When engaging with short term or long-term accommodation, homeless families can be assigned with a caseworker. Caseworkers provide support to homeless families, by assisting: with employment opportunities, living skills and securing long term accommodation in order to ease the burden associated with family homelessness. [31] Data that identifies the level of success associated with these accommodation programs is unavailable due to minimal follow-up with those who move into long-term independent living [32]

The Role of Non-Government Organisations

NGOs or Non-government organisations can often assist with easing the burdens associated with being homeless through providing access to support workers, programs and assistance with finding long-term accommodation. [31] In some countries, such as Australia, the state or federal governments often redirect dealing with family homelessness to non-government organisations as they are often more equipped to deal with the issue, and the government can become overwhelmed, especially in countries where family homelessless occurs at high rates. [33] For example, the recent COVID-19 crisis has worsened the issue of family homelessness due to a loss of income for many. However, non-government organisations such as The Salvation Army and Wayside Chapel have been instrumental in supporting those experiencing family homelessness through providing accommodation and counselling services, in order to ease the pressure on the Australian Government whilst dealing with the global pandemic. [33]

Examples of Non- Government Organisations

Mission Australia

Mission Australia is a homelessness charity that aims to provide stable and safe housing to all Australians. They conduct their work through visiting local communities where homelessness rates are high and developing sustainable economic plans to provide more secure housing. Moreover, the provide access to shelter for those who need it. [34]

Kids Under Cover

Kids Under Cover is a not-for-profit organisation based in Australia that primarily focuses on assisting children affected by family homelessness(children and young people aged between 12 and 25 years). [35] They work on restoring relationships between children and their family in the midst of relationship breakdowns, assists with providing education to children through educational scholarships and help secure access to employment. [35]

Family Promise

Family Promise is an American organisation dedicated to the issue of family homelessness, through supporting low-income families and helping them to secure stable housing. [36] They provide many community programs to establish social connections within the community. They also provide assistance with accessing education, and provide food to those struggling with family homelessness. [36]

Solutions

Some American researchers argue that social programs, such as rental subsidies, that either reduce poverty or increase the supply of affordable housing will be effective in lowering the total number of homeless families. [4] In the United States Section 8 certificates are used to help provide housing, as the household pays about 30% of its income toward rent, and the federal government funds the other 70%. Emergency shelter grants provides for basic shelter and essential supportive services. It also can be used for short-term homeless prevention assistance to persons at imminent risk of losing their own housing due to eviction, foreclosure, or utility shutoffs. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in Canada</span>

Homelessness in Canada was not a social problem until the 1980s. The Canadian government housing policies and programs in place throughout the 1970s were based on a concept of shelter as a basic need or requirement for survival and of the obligation of government and society to provide adequate housing for everyone. Public policies shifted away from rehousing in the 1980s in wealthy Western countries like Canada, which led to a de-housing of households that had previously been housed. By 1987, when the United Nations established the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless (IYSH), homelessness had become a serious social problem in Canada. The report of the major 1987 IYSH conference held in Ottawa said that housing was not a high priority for government, and this was a significant contributor to the homelessness problem. While there was a demand for adequate and affordable housing for low income Canadian families, government funding was not available. In the 1980s a "wider segment of the population" began to experience homelessness for the first time – evident through their use of emergency shelters and soup kitchens. Shelters began to experience overcrowding, and demand for services for the homeless was constantly increasing. A series of cuts were made to national housing programs by the federal government through the mid-1980s and in the 1990s. While Canada's economy was robust, the cuts continued and in some cases accelerated in the 1990s, including cuts to the 1973 national affordable housing program. The government solution for homelessness was to create more homeless shelters and to increase emergency services. In the larger metropolitan areas like Toronto the use of homeless shelters increased by 75% from 1988 to 1998. Urban centres such as Montreal, Laval, Vancouver, Edmonton, and Calgary all experienced increasing homelessness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in the United States</span>

In the United States, the number of homeless people on a given night in January 2023 was more than 650,000 according to the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Homelessness has increased in recent years, in large part due to an increasingly severe housing shortage and rising home prices in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeless shelter</span> Service agency that provides temporary residence for homeless people

Homeless shelters are a type of homeless service agency which provide temporary residence for homeless individuals and families. Shelters exist to provide residents with safety and protection from exposure to the weather while simultaneously reducing the environmental impact on the community. They are similar to, but distinguishable from, various types of emergency shelters, which are typically operated for specific circumstances and populations—fleeing natural disasters or abusive social circumstances. Extreme weather conditions create problems similar to disaster management scenarios, and are handled with warming centers, which typically operate for short durations during adverse weather.

Housing Benefit is a means-tested social security benefit in the United Kingdom that is intended to help meet housing costs for rented accommodation. It is the second biggest item in the Department for Work and Pensions' budget after the state pension, totalling £23.8 billion in 2013–14.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeless women in the United States</span>

Out of 10,000 female individuals 13 are homeless. Although studies reflect that there are many differences among women suffering homelessness and there is no universal experience, the average homeless woman is 35 years old, has children, is a member of a minority community, and has experienced homelessness more than once in their lifetime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing</span> Housing affordable to those with a median household income

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in Australia</span> Overview of homelessness in Australia

Homelessness in Australia is a social issue concerning the number of people in Australia that are considered to be homeless. There are no internationally agreed upon definitions of homelessness, making it difficult to compare levels of homelessness across countries. A majority of people experiencing homelessness long-term in Australia are found in the large cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth. It is estimated that on any given night approximately 116,000 people will be homeless and many more are living in insecure housing, "one step away from being homeless". A person who does not obtain any shelter is often described as sleeping 'rough'.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in the United Kingdom</span> Overview of homelessness in the United Kingdom

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in India</span> Major social issue in India

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in Vancouver</span> Social crisis in Vancouver

Homelessness is a social crisis that has been rapidly accelerating in the Canadian city of Vancouver, British Columbia, over the last decade. According to the United Nations, homelessness can either be relative or absolute. Absolute homelessness describes people living in absence of proper physical shelter. Relative homelessness describes people living in poor conditions of health or security, including an absence of both personal safety and steady income despite having physical shelter to reside in. As of 2011, roughly 2,651 people in Vancouver are subject to one of these types of homelessness, or are transitioning between them. Homelessness as a social issue in Vancouver originated from federal funding cuts to affordable housing. After market housing increased, the cost of housing became one of Vancouver's main causes of homelessness, alongside lack of income. The homeless population in Vancouver is subjected to high amounts of crime-related victimization. There have been several approaches to reducing the homeless population in Greater Vancouver by the city and other organizations. As of 2011, the rate of homelessness in Vancouver has stopped increasing, but it is not being reduced either. British Columbia, as the only province without a deadly winter season, sees many migrate from other provinces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness and mental health</span>

In a study in Western societies, homeless people have a higher prevalence of mental illness when compared to the general population. They also are more likely to suffer from alcoholism and drug dependency. It is estimated that 20–25% of homeless people, compared with 6% of the non-homeless, have severe mental illness. Others estimate that up to one-third of the homeless have a mental illness. In January 2015, the most extensive survey ever undertaken found 564,708 people were homeless on a given night in the United States. Depending on the age group in question and how homelessness is defined, the consensus estimate as of 2014 was that, at minimum, 25% of the American homeless—140,000 individuals—were seriously mentally ill at any given point in time. 45% percent of the homeless—250,000 individuals—had any mental illness. More would be labeled homeless if these were annual counts rather than point-in-time counts. Being chronically homeless also means that people with mental illnesses are more likely to experience catastrophic health crises requiring medical intervention or resulting in institutionalization within the criminal justice system. Majority of the homeless population do not have a mental illness. Although there is no correlation between homelessness and mental health, those who are dealing with homelessness are struggling with psychological and emotional distress. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration conducted a study and found that in 2010, 26.2 percent of sheltered homeless people had a severe mental illness.

Homelessness and aging is a largely neglected topic in the literature. There is a widespread assumption that aged homeless people are rare, but this is not true. Japan, Australia and the United Kingdom show increases in their populations of aging homelessness. Increased Elderly adults who straddle the poverty line are at greater risk of falling into pathways of homelessness. When a homeless person enters their later years, or becomes homeless for the first time in older age, health issues can become difficult to address and compound as age progresses.

Homelessness in Greece refers to the state or process of sleeping in housing that is below the minimum standard or lacking secure tenure, in relation to the nation of Greece. Austerity measures and the ongoing fiscal crisis have significantly spurred the rise in homelessness in Greece in the 21st century. Instances of homelessness have been dominantly concentrated in the city of Athens. Homelessness remains a relatively under-examined area of social policy in Greece, with the first organised counting for homeless people taking place in May 2018. Governments and non-profit organisations alike have made efforts to counter this phenomenon.

Rural poverty in Canada is part of rural poverty worldwide, albeit Canada is among the richer countries in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty and health in the United States</span>

Poverty and health are intertwined in the United States. As of 2019, 10.5% of Americans were considered in poverty, according to the U.S. Government's official poverty measure. People who are beneath and at the poverty line have different health risks than citizens above it, as well as different health outcomes. The impoverished population grapples with a plethora of challenges in physical health, mental health, and access to healthcare. These challenges are often due to the population's geographic location and negative environmental effects. Examining the divergences in health between the impoverished and their non-impoverished counterparts provides insight into the living conditions of those who live in poverty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social services and homelessness in Columbus, Ohio</span> Aspects of support for low-income and homeless residents of Columbus, Ohio

Columbus, the capital city of Ohio, has a history of social services to provide for low- and no-income residents. The city has many neighborhoods below the poverty line, and has experienced a rise in homelessness in recent decades. Social services include cash- and housing-related assistance, case management, treatment for mental health and substance abuse, and legal and budget/credit assistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COVID-19 and homelessness</span>

Homeless individuals are more likely to contract COVID-19 than those with permanent housing access. This is due to the environments that homeless people live in, which often suffer overcrowding and/or a lack of access to adequate sanitation. Homeless individuals are also more likely to suffer underlying health conditions, which increases the risk of death caused by COVID-19. The closure of public facilities has negatively impacted the homeless population, as reduced access to toilet facilities and support services has affected their hygiene and mental health respectively. Initiatives have been introduced by governments and at local levels in attempts to reduce the impact on the homeless.

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  24. ↑ Levin, Sam (20 March 2020). "'If I get it, I die': homeless residents say inhumane shelter conditions will spread coronavirus". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  25. ↑ Keane, A, Carol; Magee, A, Christopher; Kelly, J, Peter (November 2016). "Is there a Complex Trauma Experience typology for Australians experiencing extreme social disadvantage and low housing stability?". Child Abuse & Neglect. 61: 43–54. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.001. PMID   27744217 – via ClinicalKey.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ Reeve, Kesia (February 2017). "Welfare conditionality, benefit sanctions and homelessness in the UK: ending the 'something for nothing culture' or punishing the poor?" (PDF). Journal of Poverty and Social Justice. 25 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1332/175982717X14842281240539. ProQuest   1948389976.
  27. ↑ Fitzpatrick, Suzanne; Jones, Anwen (2005). "Pursuing Social Justice or Social Cohesion?: Coercion in Street Homelessness Policies in England". Journal of Social Policy. 34 (3): 389–406. doi:10.1017/S0047279405008834. S2CID   144008008 – via Cambridge Core.
  28. ↑ Doors, G. (2011). Family homelessness facts. Family Homelessness Facts | Green Doors. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.greendoors.org/facts/family-homelessness.php
  29. ↑ DuBois, H. (2022, March 5). Demographics and statistics of the homelessness crisis in America. Father Joe's Villages. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://my.neighbor.org/demographics-statistics-homelessness/#:~:text=While%2048%25%20of%20all%20those,compared%20to%20the%20U.S.%20population.
  30. ↑ Ward, Catherine L; Seager, John R (March 2010). "South African street children: A survey and recommendations for services". Development Southern Africa. pp. 85–100. doi:10.1080/03768350903519374.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Johnson, Guy; Watson, Juliet (2017). "International Commentary: The Implications of the Family Options Study for Family Homelessness in Australia". Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research. 19 (3): 211–217.
  32. ↑ Donley, M, Amy; Crisafi, Denise; Mullins, Alyssa; Wright, D, James (4 January 2017). "How Stable is the Condition of Family Homelessness". Social Science and Public Policy. 54: 46–55.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. 1 2 Health, Nicola (8 August 2018). "Handing money to someone on the street provides temporary relief, but donating to an organisation means your money goes further in supporting the most vulnerable people in society". SBS. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  34. ↑ "About Us". Mission Australia. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  35. 1 2 "What We Do". Kids Under Cover. 23 March 2016. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  36. 1 2 "What We Do". Family Promise. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
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