Geothermal energy in the United States

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The Sonoma Calpine 3 geothermal power station of The Geysers Sonoma Plant at The Geysers 4778.png
The Sonoma Calpine 3 geothermal power station of The Geysers

Geothermal energy in the United States was first used for electric power production in 1960. The Geysers in Sonoma and Lake counties, California was developed into what is now the largest geothermal steam electrical plant in the world, at 1,517 megawatts. Other geothermal steam fields are known in the western United States and Alaska. Geothermally generated electric power can be dispatchable to follow the demands of changing loads. Environmental impact of this energy source includes hydrogen sulfide emissions, corrosive or saline chemicals discharged in waste water, possible seismic effects from water injection into rock formations, waste heat and noise. [1] [2]

Contents

History

Geothermal drilling at The Geysers in California, 1977 GeysersGeothermalDrilling1977.jpg
Geothermal drilling at The Geysers in California, 1977

Archaeological evidence documents that geothermal resources have been in use in the US for more than 10,000 years. Paleo-Indians first used geothermal hot springs for warmth, cleansing, and minerals. [3]

Pacific Gas and Electric opened the US' first commercial geothermal power plant at The Geysers in California in September 1960, initially producing eleven megawatts of net power. The Geysers system grew into the world's largest, with an output of 750 MW. [3] It exploits the largest dry steam field, 116 km (72 mi) north of San Francisco. [4] The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years. [5]

Near Several small power plants were built during the late 1980s in the Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah. is now an area of rapid geothermal development. [6]

In the Salton Sea, as of 2001, 15 geothermal plants were producing electricity. Hudson Ranch I geothermal plant, a 50 MW plant opened in May 2012. A second similar plant was to open in 2013. [7]

Estimated subterranean temperatures at a depth of 6 kilometers Geothermal resource map US.png
Estimated subterranean temperatures at a depth of 6 kilometers

The most significant development catalyst is the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This Act made new geothermal plants eligible for the full federal production tax credit, previously available only to wind power projects and certain kinds of biomass. It also authorized and directed increased funding for research by the Department of Energy, and enabled the Bureau of Land Management to address its backlog of geothermal leases and permits. [8]

In April 2008, exploratory drilling began at Newberry Volcano in Oregon. [9] As of August 2008, 103 new projects were under way in 13 US states. When developed, these projects could potentially supply up to 3,979 MW of power, meeting the needs of about 4 million homes. [10] The DOE Geothermal Technologies Program (part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009) allowed the USDOE to fund research in Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) to learn more about the fracture systems in geothermal reservoirs and better predict the results of reservoir stimulation.

In 2009, investment bank Credit Suisse calculated that geothermal power costs 3.6 cents per kilowatt-hour, versus 5.5 cents per kilowatt-hour for coal, if geothermal receives subsidized loans. [11]

A report released in late May 2019 by the Department of Energy suggests that US geothermal power capacity could increase by more than twenty-six times by 2050, reaching a capacity of 60 GW, thanks to accelerated technological development and adoption. The report documented the benefits of geothermal power for residential and industrial heating. [12] Energy Secretary Rick Perry announced his Department had provided funding for a $140-million research facility at the University of Utah on man-made geothermal energy. [13]

In 2018 the Department of Energy (DOE), launched the Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE). [14]

In 2018, due to volcanic activity the Puna Geothermal Venture in Hawaii had to be closed and was inundated by lava flows. [15] It reopened in November 2020. [16]

In 2023, Houston-based startup Fervo began sending electricity to the grid from its 3.5 MW enhanced geothermal system Project Red. The project used horizontal drilling to drill two wells and access additional thermal resources. The company began drilling for a 400 MW project involving 100 wells in Beaver County, Utah. [17] In 2024 the company announced a 70% YoY reduction in drilling times, achieving 70 ft/hr in granite and >430 °F (221 °C). [18]

Production

Existing and planned US geothermal power generation, April 2015 2015-04-17 Geothermal Capacity.jpg
Existing and planned US geothermal power generation, April 2015

With 3,900 MW of installed geothermal capacity as of 2023, the US remains the world leader with about 25% of the online capacity total. [19] The future outlook for expanded production from conventional and enhanced geothermal systems is positive as new technologies promise increased growth in locations previously not considered. [10]

Geothermal generation by year in the United States [20] (TWhr)
Geothermal energy in the United States

By state

Geothermal production in terrawatt hours (TWh) by state as of December 2023 [21] [22]

StateProduction (TWh)Share of U.S total
California10,96266.6%
Nevada4,29626.1%
Utah5213.2%
Hawaii3482.1%
Oregon2121.3%
Idaho860.5%
New Mexico [23] 360.2%
Total16,462100%

Geysers

The Geysers has 1517  megawatt (MW) [24] of active installed capacity with an average capacity factor of 63%. [25] Calpine Corporation owns 15 of the 18 active plants in the Geysers and is the US' largest producer of geothermal energy. [26] Two other plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency [27] and Silicon Valley Power. [28] The remaining Bottle Rock Power Plant is owned by the US Renewables Group. [29] A nineteenth plant is under development by Ram Power. The Geysers is recharged by injecting treated sewage effluent from the City of Santa Rosa and the Lake County sewage treatment plant. This effluent used to be dumped into rivers and streams and is now piped to the geothermal field where it replenishes the steam produced for power generation.

Salton Sea

Another major geothermal area is located in south central California, on the southeast side of the Salton Sea, near Niland and Calipatria, California. 15 geothermal plants combine for a capacity of about 570 MW. CalEnergy owns about half of them and the rest are owned by various companies. [7]

Basin and Range

The Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah hosts 19 geothermal power plants in Nevada that produce more than 486 MW. The largest plant is the McGinnis Hills facility operated by Ormat with a capacity of 96 MW. [6] Other geothermal plants in Nevada are at Steamboat Springs, Brady/Desert Peak, Dixie Valley, Soda Lake, Stillwater and Beowawe.

Hawaii

Puna Geothermal Venture operates a geothermal power plant in Puna, Hawaii. Its capacity is 25.7 MWe. The plant reopened in 2020 following Kilauea's 2018 eruption that destroyed part of the plant. [30]

Reliability

Pipelines of the McGinness Hills Geothermal Complex in Nevada McGinness Hills Pipelines with Expansion Joints.jpg
Pipelines of the McGinness Hills Geothermal Complex in Nevada

Unlike power sources such as wind and solar, geothermal energy is dispatchable, meaning that it is both available whenever needed, and can quickly adjust output to match demand. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), of all types of new electrical generation plants, geothermal generators have the highest capacity factor, a measure of how much power a facility actually generates as a percent of its maximum capacity. [31]

The EIA rates new geothermal plants as having a 92% capacity factor, comparable to those of nuclear (90%), and higher than gas (87%), or coal (85%), and much higher than those of intermittent sources such as onshore wind (34%) or solar photovoltaic (25%). [32] While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available, for most intents and purposes, indefinitely. [3] [ dead link ‍] [33]

National Geothermal Data System

The US operates the National Geothermal Data System (NGDS). Through the NGDS, many older paper archives and drill logs stored at state geological surveys are now being digitized and made available for free to the public. [34]

Cost

The initial cost for the field and power plant is around $2500 per installed kW in the U.S., probably $3000 to $5000/kWe for a small (<1Mwe) power plant. Operating and maintenance costs range from $0.01 to $0.03 per kWh. [35]

— US Department of Energy, 2022

Environmental effects

The underground hot water and steam used to generate geothermal power may contain chemical pollutants, such as hydrogen sulfide (H
2S).

H
2S is toxic in high concentrations, and is sometimes found in geothermal systems. [36] Newer production methods separate the hot steam collected underground from the steam used to power turbines, and substantially reduce the risk of releasing contaminants. [37]

The water mixed with the steam contains dissolved salts that can damage pipes and harm aquatic ecosystems. [38] Some subsurface water associated with geothermal sources contains high concentrations of toxic elements such as boron, lead, and arsenic.

Injection of water in enhanced geothermal systems may induce seismicity. Earthquakes at the Geysers geothermal field in California, the largest being Richter magnitude 4.6, have been linked to injected water. [39]

"Possible effects include scenery spoliation, drying out of hot springs, soil erosion, noise pollution, and chemical pollution of the atmosphere and of surface- and groundwaters." [40]

See also

US renewables:

International:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal energy</span> Thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth

Geothermal energy is thermal energy extracted from the Earth's crust. It combines energy from the formation of the planet and from radioactive decay. Geothermal energy has been exploited as a source of heat and/or electric power for millennia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal heating</span> Use of geothermal energy for heating

Geothermal heating is the direct use of geothermal energy for some heating applications. Humans have taken advantage of geothermal heat this way since the Paleolithic era. Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of geothermal heating in 2004. As of 2007, 28 GW of geothermal heating capacity is installed around the world, satisfying 0.07% of global primary energy consumption. Thermal efficiency is high since no energy conversion is needed, but capacity factors tend to be low since the heat is mostly needed in the winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calpine</span> Large energy company in the U.S.

Calpine Corporation is the largest generator of electricity from natural gas and geothermal resources in the United States, with operations in competitive power markets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Geysers</span> Worlds largest geothermal field, California

The Geysers is the world's largest geothermal field, containing a complex of 18 geothermal power plants, drawing steam from more than 350 wells, located in the Mayacamas Mountains approximately 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enhanced geothermal system</span> Type of electricity generation system

An enhanced geothermal system (EGS) generates geothermal electricity without natural convective hydrothermal resources. Traditionally, geothermal power systems operated only where naturally occurring heat, water, and rock permeability are sufficient to allow energy extraction. However, most geothermal energy within reach of conventional techniques is in dry and impermeable rock. EGS technologies expand the availability of geothermal resources through stimulation methods, such as 'hydraulic stimulation'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal power</span> Power generated by geothermal energy

Geothermal power is electrical power generated from geothermal energy. Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries, while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal power in Canada</span>

Canada has substantial potential for geothermal energy development. To date, development has all been for heating applications. Canada has 103,523 direct use installations as of 2013. There is currently no electricity being generated from geothermal sources in Canada although substantial potential exists in the Canadian Cordillera. The most advanced project exists as a test geothermal-electrical site at the Mount Meager massif in British Columbia, where a 100 MegaWatt (MW) facility could be developed. Potential for enhanced geothermal energy systems (EGS) exists throughout Canada. There are six geothermal power and two direct use projects listed with the Canadian Geothermal Energy Association.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermal power in Kenya</span>

Geothermal power is very cost-effective in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya, East Africa. As of 2023, Kenya has 891.8 MW of installed geothermal capacity. Kenya was the first African country to build geothermal energy sources. The Kenya Electricity Generating Company, which is 74% state-owned, has built several plants to exploit the Olkaria geothermal resource; Olkaria I, Olkaria II, Olkaria IV, Olkaria V, and Wellhead generation plants, with a third private plant Olkaria III. Additionally, a pilot wellhead plant of 2.5 MW has been commissioned at Eburru; and, two small scale plants with a total of 4 MW have been built by Oserian Development Company powering businesses on and around Oserian land.

Geothermal energy is the second most used form of renewable energy in Russia but represents less than 1% of the total energy production. The first geothermal power plant in Russia, which was the first Binary cycle power station in the world, was built at Pauzhetka, Kamchatka, in 1966, with a capacity of 5 MW. The total geothermal installed capacity is 81.9 MW, with 50 MW coming from a plant at Verkhne-Mutnovsky.Two other plants were built on the Kamchatka Peninsula in 1999 and 2002. Two smaller additional plants were installed on the islands of Kunashir and Iturup in 2007. Most geothermal resources are currently used for heating settlements in the North Caucasus and Kamchatka. Half of the geothermal production is used to heat homes and industrial buildings, one third is used to heat greenhouses and 13% is used for industrial processes.

AltaRock Energy Inc. is a privately held corporation that focuses on the development of geothermal energy resources and enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). It is headquartered in Seattle, Washington and has a technology development office in Sausalito, California. AltaRock has filed patent applications and holds exclusive licenses for related intellectual property related to EGS. In 2008 it started its first project near The Geysers in California to demonstrate the ability of EGS to be a reliable, renewable and clean source for the production of electric power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olkaria</span> Geothermal region in Kenya

The Olkaria Area is a region located immediately to the south of Lake Naivasha in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya, Africa. It is geothermally active and is being used to generate clean electric power. The region has an estimated potential of 2,000 MW. This is almost double the maximum daily electricity peak demand recorded in 2008/2009 for the entire country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy in Hawaii</span> Overview of energy resources in Hawaii, US

Energy in the U.S. state of Hawaii is produced from a mixture of fossil fuel and renewable resources. Producing energy is complicated by the state's isolated location and lack of fossil fuel resources. The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum; Hawaii has the highest share of petroleum use in the United States, with 67% of electricity generation in the state coming from petroleum in 2023, compared to less than 1% nationally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renewable energy in Kenya</span>

Most of Kenya's electricity is generated by renewable energy sources. Access to reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy is one of the 17 main goals of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Development of the energy sector is also critical to help Kenya achieve the goals in Kenya Vision 2030 to become a newly industrializing, middle-income country. With an installed power capacity of 2,819 MW, Kenya currently generates 826 MW hydroelectric power, 828 geothermal power, 749 MW thermal power, 331 MW wind power, and the rest from solar and biomass sources. Kenya is the largest geothermal energy producer in Africa and also has the largest wind farm on the continent. In March 2011, Kenya opened Africa's first carbon exchange to promote investments in renewable energy projects. Kenya has also been selected as a pilot country under the Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Programmes in Low Income Countries Programme to increase deployment of renewable energy solutions in low-income countries. Despite significant strides in renewable energy development, about a quarter of the Kenyan population still lacks access to electricity, necessitating policy changes to diversify the energy generation mix and promote public-private partnerships for financing renewable energy projects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puna Geothermal Venture</span> Geothermal power plant in Hawaii

The Puna Geothermal Venture (PGV) is a geothermal energy power plant on the island of Hawaii, the largest island in the state of Hawaii. The plant was shut down shortly after the start of the May 2018 lower Puna eruption, and resumed power generation in November 2020. The eruption had caused lava to flow over a PGV power substation, a warehouse and at least three geothermal wells that had been preventatively quenched and capped when lava fountains erupted nearby, eventually also cutting off road access.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renewable energy in California</span> Solar, geothermal, and biomass and hydroelectric power generation

California produces more renewable energy than any other state in the United States except Texas. In 2018, California ranked first in the nation as a producer of electricity from solar, geothermal, and biomass resources and fourth in the nation in conventional hydroelectric power generation. As of 2017, over half of the electricity (52.7%) produced was from renewable sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar augmented geothermal energy</span> Solar-heated artificial underground lake

Solar augmented geothermal energy (SAGE) is an advanced method of geothermal energy that creates a synthetic geothermal storage resource by heating a natural brine with solar energy and adding enough heat when the sun shines to generate power 24 hours a day. The earth is given enough energy in one hour to provide all electrical needs for a year. Available energy is not the issue, but energy storage is the problem and SAGE creates effective storage and electrical power delivery on demand. This technology is especially effective for geothermal wells that have demonstrated inconsistent heat or idle oil or gas fields that have demonstrated the proper geology and have an abundance of solar.

The Bottle Rock Power Plant (BRPP) is a geothermal power plant in the Glenbrook Area of Lake County, California, United States.

Fervo Energy is an energy resource company focused on harnessing heat through enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). It was co-founded in 2017 by Tim Latimer, a mechanical engineer who worked as a drilling engineer at BHP until 2015. His departure from the oil and gas sector was driven by a desire to apply techniques observed during the shale revolution to geothermal extraction.

References

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