Glucagon (medication)

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Glucagon
Glucagon stereo animation.gif
Glucagon ball and stick model, with the carboxyl terminus above and the amino terminus below
Clinical data
Trade names Glucagen, Baqsimi, Gvoke, others
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
MedlinePlus a682480
License data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration 		Nasal, intravenous (IV), intramuscular injection (IM), subcutaneous injection
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Identifiers
  • Glucagon
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
Chemical and physical data
Formula C153H225N43O49S
Molar mass 3482.80 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • C[C@H]([C@@H](C(=O)N[C@@H](Cc1ccccc1)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](Cc2ccc(cc2)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCCN)C(=O)N[C@@H](Cc3ccc(cc3)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](CO)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCCNC(=N)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)O)C(=O)N[C@@H](Cc4ccccc4)C(=O)N[C@@H](C(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H](Cc5c[nH]c6c5cccc6)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)N[C@@H](CCSC)C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(=O)N)C(=O)N[C@@H]([C@@H](C)O)C(=O)O)NC(=O)CNC(=O)[C@H](CCC(=O)N)NC(=O)[C@H](CO)NC(=O)[C@H](Cc7cnc[nH]7)N)O
  • InChI=1S/C153H225N43O49S/c1-72(2)52-97(133(226)176-96(47-51-246-11)132(225)184-104(60-115(159)209)143(236)196-123(78(10)203)151(244)245)179-137(230)103(58-83-64-167-89-29-19-18-28-87(83)89)183-131(224)95(43-46-114(158)208)177-148(241)120(74(5)6)194-141(234)101(54-79-24-14-12-15-25-79)182-138(231)105(61-117(211)212)185-130(223)94(42-45-113(157)207)171-124(217)75(7)170-127(220)91(31-22-49-165-152(160)161)172-128(221)92(32-23-50-166-153(162)163)174-146(239)110(69-199)191-140(233)107(63-119(215)216)186-134(227)98(53-73(3)4)178-135(228)99(56-81-33-37-85(204)38-34-81)180-129(222)90(30-20-21-48-154)173-145(238)109(68-198)190-136(229)100(57-82-35-39-86(205)40-36-82)181-139(232)106(62-118(213)214)187-147(240)111(70-200)192-150(243)122(77(9)202)195-142(235)102(55-80-26-16-13-17-27-80)188-149(242)121(76(8)201)193-116(210)66-168-126(219)93(41-44-112(156)206)175-144(237)108(67-197)189-125(218)88(155)59-84-65-164-71-169-84/h12-19,24-29,33-40,64-65,71-78,88,90-111,120-123,167,197-205H,20-23,30-32,41-63,66-70,154-155H2,1-11H3,(H2,156,206)(H2,157,207)(H2,158,208)(H2,159,209)(H,164,169)(H,168,219)(H,170,220)(H,171,217)(H,172,221)(H,173,238)(H,174,239)(H,175,237)(H,176,226)(H,177,241)(H,178,228)(H,179,230)(H,180,222)(H,181,232)(H,182,231)(H,183,224)(H,184,225)(H,185,223)(H,186,227)(H,187,240)(H,188,242)(H,189,218)(H,190,229)(H,191,233)(H,192,243)(H,193,210)(H,194,234)(H,195,235)(H,196,236)(H,211,212)(H,213,214)(H,215,216)(H,244,245)(H4,160,161,165)(H4,162,163,166)/t75-,76+,77+,78+,88-,90-,91-,92-,93-,94-,95-,96-,97-,98-,99-,100-,101-,102-,103-,104-,105-,106-,107-,108-,109-,110-,111-,120-,121-,122-,123-/m0/s1 Yes check.svgY
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Glucagon, sold under the brand name Baqsimi among others, is a medication and hormone. [9] As a medication it is used to treat low blood sugar, beta blocker overdose, calcium channel blocker overdose, and those with anaphylaxis who do not improve with epinephrine. [10] It is given by injection into a vein, muscle, or under the skin. [10] A version given in the nose is also available. [11]

Contents

Common side effects include vomiting. [10] Other side effects include low blood potassium and low blood pressure. [9] It is not recommended in people who have a pheochromocytoma or insulinoma. [10] Use in pregnancy has not been found to be harmful to the baby. [12] Glucagon is in the glycogenolytic family of medications. [10] It works by causing the liver to break down glycogen into glucose. [10]

Glucagon was approved for medical use in the United States in 1960. [10] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [13] It is a manufactured form of the glucagon hormone. [10] A generic version became available in the United States in December 2020. [14]

Medical uses

Glucagon 1.jpg
A closed glucagon injection kit
Glucagon 2.jpg
An open glucagon injection kit

Low blood sugar

An injectable form of glucagon may be part of first aid in cases of low blood sugar when the person is unconscious or for other reasons cannot take glucose orally or by intravenous. [15] The glucagon is given by intramuscular, intravenous or subcutaneous injection, and quickly raises blood glucose levels. To use the injectable form, it must be reconstituted prior to use, a step that requires a sterile diluent to be injected into a vial containing powdered glucagon, because the hormone is highly unstable when dissolved in solution. When dissolved in a fluid state, glucagon can form amyloid fibrils, or tightly woven chains of proteins made up of the individual glucagon peptides, and once glucagon begins to fibrilize, it becomes useless when injected, as the glucagon cannot be absorbed and used by the body. The reconstitution process makes using glucagon cumbersome, although there are a number of products now in development from a number of companies that aim to make the product easier to use.

A Baqsimi nasal glucagon canister Naw sumo Nasal Spray.jpg
A Baqsimi nasal glucagon canister

Beta blocker overdose

Anecdotal evidence suggests a benefit of higher doses of glucagon in the treatment of overdose with beta blockers; the likely mechanism of action is the increase of cAMP in the myocardium, in effect bypassing the β-adrenergic second messenger system. [16]

Anaphylaxis

Some people who have anaphylaxis and are on beta blockers are resistant to epinephrine. In this situation glucagon intravenously may be useful to treat their low blood pressure. [17]

Impacted food bolus

Glucagon relaxes the lower esophageal sphincter and may be used in those with an impacted food bolus in the esophagus ("steakhouse syndrome"). [18] There is little evidence for glucagon's effectiveness in this condition, [19] [20] [21] and glucagon may induce nausea and vomiting, [21] but considering the safety of glucagon this is still considered an acceptable option as long it does not lead to delays in arranging other treatments. [22] [23]

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Glucagon's effect of increasing cAMP causes relaxation of splanchnic smooth muscle, allowing cannulation of the duodenum during the endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedure.

Adverse effects

Glucagon acts very quickly; common side-effects include headache and nausea.

Drug interactions: Glucagon interacts only with oral anticoagulants, increasing the tendency to bleed. [24]

Contraindications

While glucagon can be used clinically to treat various forms of hypoglycemia, it is contraindicated in patients with pheochromocytoma, as it can induce the tumor to release catecholamines, leading to a sudden elevation in blood pressure. [4] Likewise, glucagon is contraindicated in patients with an insulinoma, as its hyperglycemic effect can induce the tumor to release insulin, leading to rebound hypoglycemia. [4]

Mechanism of action

Metabolic regulation of glycogen by glucagon. Glucagon Activation.png
Metabolic regulation of glycogen by glucagon.

Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor, located in the plasma membrane. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the GDP molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase. [25]

Adenylate cyclase manufactures cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates phosphorylase kinase, which then phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase b, converting it into the active form called phosphorylase a. Phosphorylase a is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen polymers. [25]

Additionally, the coordinated control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver is adjusted by the phosphorylation state of the enzymes that catalyze the formation of a potent activator of glycolysis called fructose-2,6-bisphosphate. [26] The enzyme protein kinase A that was stimulated by the cascade initiated by glucagon will also phosphorylate a single serine residue of the bifunctional polypeptide chain containing both the enzymes fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase and phosphofructokinase-2. This covalent phosphorylation initiated by glucagon activates the former and inhibits the latter. This regulates the reaction catalyzing fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (a potent activator of phosphofructokinase-1, the enzyme that is the primary regulatory step of glycolysis) [27] by slowing the rate of its formation, thereby inhibiting the flux of the glycolysis pathway and allowing gluconeogenesis to predominate. This process is reversible in the absence of glucagon (and thus, the presence of insulin).

Glucagon stimulation of PKA also inactivates the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. [28]

History

In the 1920s, Kimball and Murlin studied pancreatic extracts, and found an additional substance with hyperglycemic properties. They described glucagon in 1923. [29] The amino acid sequence of glucagon was described in the late 1950s. [30] A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed.

A nasal version was approved for use in the United States and Canada in 2019. [11] [31] [32] [33] [34]

In December 2020, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Ogluo, intended for the treatment of severe hypoglycemia in diabetes mellitus. [35] The applicant for this medicinal product is Xeris Pharmaceuticals Ireland Limited. It was approved for medical use in the European Union in February 2021. [7]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glycolysis</span> Series of interconnected biochemical reactions

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and, in most organisms, occurs in the liquid part of cells. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Glycolysis is a sequence of ten reactions catalyzed by enzymes.

Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the biosynthesis of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. It is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. In vertebrates, gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cortex of the kidneys. It is one of two primary mechanisms – the other being degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis) – used by humans and many other animals to maintain blood sugar levels, avoiding low levels (hypoglycemia). In ruminants, because dietary carbohydrates tend to be metabolized by rumen organisms, gluconeogenesis occurs regardless of fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, exercise, etc. In many other animals, the process occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, low-carbohydrate diets, or intense exercise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glucagon</span> Peptide hormone

Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas. It raises the concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream and is considered to be the main catabolic hormone of the body. It is also used as a medication to treat a number of health conditions. Its effect is opposite to that of insulin, which lowers extracellular glucose. It is produced from proglucagon, encoded by the GCG gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase</span> Class of enzymes

The enzyme fructose bisphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11; systematic name D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 1-phosphohydrolase) catalyses the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate in gluconeogenesis and the Calvin cycle, which are both anabolic pathways:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glycogenolysis</span> Breakdown of glycogen

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen (n-1). Glycogen branches are catabolized by the sequential removal of glucose monomers via phosphorolysis, by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tumor hypoxia</span> Situation where tumor cells have been deprived of oxygen

Tumor hypoxia is the situation where tumor cells have been deprived of oxygen. As a tumor grows, it rapidly outgrows its blood supply, leaving portions of the tumor with regions where the oxygen concentration is significantly lower than in healthy tissues. Hypoxic microenvironments in solid tumors are a result of available oxygen being consumed within 70 to 150 μm of tumor vasculature by rapidly proliferating tumor cells thus limiting the amount of oxygen available to diffuse further into the tumor tissue. In order to support continuous growth and proliferation in challenging hypoxic environments, cancer cells are found to alter their metabolism. Furthermore, hypoxia is known to change cell behavior and is associated with extracellular matrix remodeling and increased migratory and metastatic behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphofructokinase 1</span> Class of enzymes

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is one of the most important regulatory enzymes of glycolysis. It is an allosteric enzyme made of 4 subunits and controlled by many activators and inhibitors. PFK-1 catalyzes the important "committed" step of glycolysis, the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate and ATP to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP. Glycolysis is the foundation for respiration, both anaerobic and aerobic. Because phosphofructokinase (PFK) catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation to convert fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP, it is one of the key regulatory steps of glycolysis. PFK is able to regulate glycolysis through allosteric inhibition, and in this way, the cell can increase or decrease the rate of glycolysis in response to the cell's energy requirements. For example, a high ratio of ATP to ADP will inhibit PFK and glycolysis. The key difference between the regulation of PFK in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is that in eukaryotes PFK is activated by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. The purpose of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is to supersede ATP inhibition, thus allowing eukaryotes to have greater sensitivity to regulation by hormones like glucagon and insulin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate kinase</span> Class of enzymes

Pyruvate kinase is the enzyme involved in the last step of glycolysis. It catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), yielding one molecule of pyruvate and one molecule of ATP. Pyruvate kinase was inappropriately named before it was recognized that it did not directly catalyze phosphorylation of pyruvate, which does not occur under physiological conditions. Pyruvate kinase is present in four distinct, tissue-specific isozymes in animals, each consisting of particular kinetic properties necessary to accommodate the variations in metabolic requirements of diverse tissues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AMP-activated protein kinase</span> Class of enzymes

5' AMP-activated protein kinase or AMPK or 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase is an enzyme that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis, largely to activate glucose and fatty acid uptake and oxidation when cellular energy is low. It belongs to a highly conserved eukaryotic protein family and its orthologues are SNF1 in yeast, and SnRK1 in plants. It consists of three proteins (subunits) that together make a functional enzyme, conserved from yeast to humans. It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal muscle. In response to binding AMP and ADP, the net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation, ketogenesis, stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake, inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipogenesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis, and modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic β-cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glucokinase</span> Enzyme participating to the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism

Glucokinase is an enzyme that facilitates phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucokinase occurs in cells in the liver and pancreas of humans and most other vertebrates. In each of these organs it plays an important role in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism by acting as a glucose sensor, triggering shifts in metabolism or cell function in response to rising or falling levels of glucose, such as occur after a meal or when fasting. Mutations of the gene for this enzyme can cause unusual forms of diabetes or hypoglycemia.

Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage. This process is activated during rest periods following the Cori cycle, in the liver, and also activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glycogen phosphorylase</span> Class of enzymes

Glycogen phosphorylase is one of the phosphorylase enzymes. Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the rate-limiting step in glycogenolysis in animals by releasing glucose-1-phosphate from the terminal alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond. Glycogen phosphorylase is also studied as a model protein regulated by both reversible phosphorylation and allosteric effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphofructokinase 2</span> Class of enzymes

Phosphofructokinase-2 (6-phosphofructo-2-kinase, PFK-2) or fructose bisphosphatase-2 (FBPase-2), is an enzyme indirectly responsible for regulating the rates of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in cells. It catalyzes formation and degradation of a significant allosteric regulator, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (Fru-2,6-P2) from substrate fructose-6-phosphate. Fru-2,6-P2 contributes to the rate-determining step of glycolysis as it activates enzyme phosphofructokinase 1 in the glycolysis pathway, and inhibits fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase 1 in gluconeogenesis. Since Fru-2,6-P2 differentially regulates glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, it can act as a key signal to switch between the opposing pathways. Because PFK-2 produces Fru-2,6-P2 in response to hormonal signaling, metabolism can be more sensitively and efficiently controlled to align with the organism's glycolytic needs. This enzyme participates in fructose and mannose metabolism. The enzyme is important in the regulation of hepatic carbohydrate metabolism and is found in greatest quantities in the liver, kidney and heart. In mammals, several genes often encode different isoforms, each of which differs in its tissue distribution and enzymatic activity. The family described here bears a resemblance to the ATP-driven phospho-fructokinases; however, they share little sequence similarity, although a few residues seem key to their interaction with fructose 6-phosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glycogen synthase</span> Enzyme class, includes all types of glycogen/starch synthases

Glycogen synthase is a key enzyme in glycogenesis, the conversion of glucose into glycogen. It is a glycosyltransferase that catalyses the reaction of UDP-glucose and n to yield UDP and n+1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate</span> Chemical compound

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, abbreviated Fru-2,6-P2, is a metabolite that allosterically affects the activity of the enzymes phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase-1) to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Fru-2,6-P2 itself is synthesized and broken down in either direction by the integrated bifunctional enzyme phosphofructokinase 2 (PFK-2/FBPase-2), which also contains a phosphatase domain and is also known as fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase. Whether the kinase and phosphatase domains of PFK-2/FBPase-2 are active or inactive depends on the phosphorylation state of the enzyme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphofructokinase</span> Enzyme in glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is a kinase enzyme that phosphorylates fructose 6-phosphate in glycolysis.

Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate synthase is a type of enzyme called a phosphotransferase and is involved in mammalian starch and sucrose metabolism. It catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to glucose-1-phosphate, yielding 3-phosphoglycerate and glucose-1,6-bisphosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enzyme activator</span> Molecules which increase enzyme activity

Enzyme activators are molecules that bind to enzymes and increase their activity. They are the opposite of enzyme inhibitors. These molecules are often involved in the allosteric regulation of enzymes in the control of metabolism. An example of an enzyme activator working in this way is fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, which activates phosphofructokinase 1 and increases the rate of glycolysis in response to the hormone glucagon. In some cases, when a substrate binds to one catalytic subunit of an enzyme, this can trigger an increase in the substrate affinity as well as catalytic activity in the enzyme's other subunits, and thus the substrate acts as an activator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PFKFB2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PFKFB2 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism</span> Medical condition

Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism are inborn error of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates.

References

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  2. ↑ "Baqsimi Product information". Health Canada . Retrieved 30 March 2024.
  3. ↑ "GlucaGen Hypokit 1 mg - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". (emc). 15 June 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  4. 1 2 3 "Glucagon kit". DailyMed. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  5. ↑ "Baqsimi- glucagon powder". DailyMed. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  6. ↑ "Baqsimi EPAR". European Medicines Agency . 17 October 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  7. 1 2 "Ogluo EPAR". European Medicines Agency (EMA). 9 December 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
  8. ↑ "Ogluo Product information". Union Register of medicinal products. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
  9. 1 2 British national formulary : BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 487. ISBN   9780857111562.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Glucagon". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
  11. 1 2 "FDA approves first treatment for severe hypoglycemia that can be administered without an injection". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Press release). 24 July 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
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  13. ↑ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl: 10665/325771 . WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
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  17. ↑ Tang AW (October 2003). "A practical guide to anaphylaxis". American Family Physician. 68 (7): 1325–1332. PMID   14567487.
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  20. ↑ Leopard D, Fishpool S, Winter S (September 2011). "The management of oesophageal soft food bolus obstruction: a systematic review". Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 93 (6): 441–444. doi:10.1308/003588411X588090. PMC   3369328 . PMID   21929913.
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  22. ↑ Ikenberry SO, Jue TL, Anderson MA, Appalaneni V, Banerjee S, Ben-Menachem T, et al. (June 2011). "Management of ingested foreign bodies and food impactions" (PDF). Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. 73 (6): 1085–1091. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2010.11.010. PMID   21628009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2013.
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  27. ↑ Claus TH, El-Maghrabi MR, Regen DM, Stewart HB, McGrane M, Kountz PD, et al. (1984). "The role of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism". Current Topics in Cellular Regulation. 23: 57–86. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-152823-2.50006-4. ISBN   9780121528232. PMID   6327193.
  28. ↑ Feliú JE, Hue L, Hers HG (August 1976). "Hormonal control of pyruvate kinase activity and of gluconeogenesis in isolated hepatocytes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 73 (8): 2762–2766. Bibcode:1976PNAS...73.2762F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.73.8.2762 . PMC   430732 . PMID   183209.
  29. ↑ Kimball C, Murlin J (1923). "Aqueous extracts of pancreas III. Some precipitation reactions of insulin". J. Biol. Chem. 58 (1): 337–348. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)85474-6 . Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
  30. ↑ Bromer W, Winn L, Behrens O (1957). "The amino acid sequence of glucagon V. Location of amide groups, acid degradation studies and summary of sequential evidence". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (11): 2807–2810. doi:10.1021/ja01568a038.
  31. ↑ "Drug Approval Package: Baqsimi". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 25 November 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  32. ↑ "Ready for rescue: new nasally administered glucagon for severe hypoglycemia approved in Canada!". Diabetes Canada. 12 December 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  33. ↑ "GLUCAGON NASAL POWDER (BAQSIMI — ELI LILLY CANADA INC)" (PDF). CADTH. 22 January 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  34. ↑ "glucagon". CADTH.ca. 25 June 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  35. ↑ "Ogluo: Pending EC decision". European Medicines Agency (EMA). 10 December 2020. Archived from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2020. Text was copied from this source which is copyright European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
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