This article's lead section may be too long.(April 2021) |
A new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by The Lancet in September 2018. Latvia had the twenty-first highest level of expected human capital with 23 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years. [1]
As of 2009, there were approximately 8,600 inhabitants of Latvia living with HIV/AIDS, accounting for a 0.7% adult HIV prevalence rate. There were 32,376 (1.44%) individual instances of clinically reported alcoholism in Latvia in 2008, as well as cases of addictions to other substances. [2] The annual number of births per 1,000 adolescent women aged 15 to 19 has declined from 49.9 in 1990 to 17.9 in 2007. [3] In 2005, Latvia had a suicide rate of 24.5 per 100,000 inhabitants (down from 40.7 in 1995), the 7th highest in the world. [4] Latvia achieved a remarkable improvement in infant mortality from 6.2/1000 births in 2012 to 3.9/1000 in 2014. [5] [6]
In 2018, the health among Latvian and international medical students studying in Riga was assessed. Latvian students displayed a higher prevalence of anxiety, depressive symptoms and physical symptoms. Latvian students displayed troubles adjusting to stressful life events. Further research to identify whether Latvians have a lower threshold for stressors or whether they are exposed to more stressors than international students should be performed. [7] These stressors could be influenced by the growing social inequality within Latvia. [8]
The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation. [9] It is similar to British NHS-type health system with a purchaser-provider split (PPS). After undergoing multiple reforms, a National Health Service (NHS) (Nacionālais veselības dienests (NVD)) type system was established in 2011. [10]
The NVD controls the implementation of healthcare policies while the Ministry of Health develops policies and oversees the system. Healthcare services are available for free for citizens of Latvia. The country's Ministry of Health manages its healthcare system through a combination of social insurance institutional body, legislative healthcare provision financed by taxes and numerous public and private providers. [11]
Despite near-universal population coverage provided by the NVD established in 2011, there are challenges to equitable access with issues around geographical distribution of health professionals, user charges and long waiting lists. The publicly funded health benefits package is limited in scope and only covers a predetermined set of services. [12] [13]
Healthcare system of Latvia was among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors. [14] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007, and 121 in 2006. [15] [16] [17] In 2023, there are
Since 2012 performance has improved considerably, with a reduction in infant mortality from 6.2 per thousand births to 3.9 in two years. [5]
Corruption is relatively widespread in the Latvian healthcare system, although the situation has improved since the early 1990s [ citation needed ]. It has been noted that an environment conducive to corruption has been promulgated by low salaries and poorly implemented systemic reforms. [18] This also results in brain drain, mostly to Western EU nations [ citation needed ]. According to the survey conducted by the Euro health consumer index in 2015 Latvia was among the European countries in which unofficial payments to doctors were reported most commonly. [5]
Individuals have the right to decline mandatory vaccinations. Health care providers must obtain the signatures of decliners and explain the health consequences; other countries do not have similar requirements. [19]
Mandatory vaccines are publicly funded; these include tuberculosis, diphtheria, measles, hepatitis B, human papilloma virus for 12-year-old girls, and tick-borne encephalitis until age 18 in endemic areas and for orphans. Other vaccines are not publicly funded.
Access to health care in Latvia remains limited for a large segment of the population, with large numbers of those on low incomes, reporting unmet needs (above 12%) because of financial constraints, and those with high income are closer to EU average 2.5%. [20]
In OECD statistics only 46% of Latvians reported to be in good health, the second lowest level in the EU by 2015, [10] and the health expenditure per capita ranked 27 out of 30 countries in EU while also being the second lowest after Romania, with the second lowest life expectancy among all EU countries in 2017. [21] [20]
In Euro Health Consumer Index, which ranks performance of accessibility, outcome, prevention and pharmaceuticals scores, Latvia ranked in 30th out of 35 countries in overall ranking in 2018. [22] According to OECD Country Health Profile 2019, Leading causes of deaths (approx. 3/4) are cardiovascular diseases, cancer, stroke and heart attack related. In recent years mortality from cancers (prostate, pancreatic, breast) are rising. [20]
Latvia ranked second lowest after Lithuania, between other EU countries in including preventable causes of mortality, and third lowest, after Lithuania and Romania in terms of treatable causes of mortality. [20]
The number of new HIV cases has been rising since 2005 and now is the highest in the EU. In 2017, 19/100 000 population in compared with 5.8/100 000 in the EU. [20]
Latvia had the fourth highest mortality in Europe, at 704 per 100,000 population in 2015, the third highest rate of male smokers - 49%, and the second highest rate of death from injury (55 per 100,000). [23]
The majority of deaths in Latvia can be linked to lifestyle-related risk factors, such as dietary risks (Latvia - 31%, EU - 18%), tobacco usage, alcohol and low physical activity. [20]
According to OECD Country Health Profile 2017, in 2014, 1 in 4 adults in Latvia were daily smokers. About 1 in 5 adults reported heavy alcohol consumption on a regular basis, which was close to average in the EU, but with substantial difference between men (33%) and women (8%).
Obesity rates are the second highest in the EU and on the rise: more than 1 in 5 adults in Latvia was obese in 2014 compared to 1 in 6 in 2008. [10]
In 2017, more than 21% of adults were obese, more than 6% above EU average. [20]
A comparison of the healthcare systems in Canada and the United States is often made by government, public health and public policy analysts. The two countries had similar healthcare systems before Canada changed its system in the 1960s and 1970s. The United States spends much more money on healthcare than Canada, on both a per-capita basis and as a percentage of GDP. In 2006, per-capita spending for health care in Canada was US$3,678; in the U.S., US$6,714. The U.S. spent 15.3% of GDP on healthcare in that year; Canada spent 10.0%. In 2006, 70% of healthcare spending in Canada was financed by government, versus 46% in the United States. Total government spending per capita in the U.S. on healthcare was 23% higher than Canadian government spending. U.S. government expenditure on healthcare was just under 83% of total Canadian spending.
Switzerland has universal health care, regulated by the Swiss Federal Law on Health Insurance. There are no free state-provided health services, but private health insurance is compulsory for all persons residing in Switzerland.
Health in Cuba refers to the overall health of the population of Cuba. Like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care suffered following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991; the stepping up of the US embargo against Cuba at this time also had an effect.
Healthcare in Europe is provided through a wide range of different systems run at individual national levels. Most European countries have a system of tightly regulated, competing private health insurance companies, with government subsidies available for citizens who cannot afford coverage. Many European countries offer their citizens a European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.
Germany has a universal multi-payer health care system paid for by a combination of statutory health insurance and private health insurance.
Life expectancy has been rising rapidly and South Korea ranked 3rd in the world for life expectancy. South Korea has among the lowest HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate in the world, with just 0.1% of the population being infected, significantly lower than the U.S. at 0.6%, France's 0.4%, and the UK's 0.3% prevalence rate. South Korea has a good influenza vaccination rate, with a total of 43.5% of the population being vaccinated in 2019. A new measure of expected human capital calculated for 195 countries from 1920 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by The Lancet in September 2018. South Korea had the sixth highest level of expected human capital with 26 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years.
Healthcare in Turkey consists of a mix of public and private health services. Turkey introduced universal health care in 2003. Known as Universal Health Insurance Genel Sağlık Sigortası, it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%. Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.
Healthcare in Finland consists of a highly decentralized three-level publicly funded healthcare system and a much smaller private sector. Although the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health has the highest decision-making authority, specific healthcare precincts are responsible for providing healthcare to their residents as of 2023.
The major causes of deaths in Finland are cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, dementia and Alzheimer's disease, respiratory diseases, alcohol related diseases and accidental poisoning by alcohol. In 2010, the leading causes of death among men aged 15 to 64 were alcohol-related deaths, ischaemic heart disease, accident, suicides, lung cancer and cerebrovascular diseases. Among women the leading causes were breast cancer, alcohol-related deaths, accidents, suicides, ischemic heart disease and lung cancer.
Healthcare in Denmark is largely provided by the local governments of the five regions, with coordination and regulation by central government, while nursing homes, home care, and school health services are the responsibility of the 98 municipalities. Some specialised hospital services are managed centrally.
Hungary has a tax-funded universal healthcare system, organized by the state-owned National Health Insurance Fund. While healthcare is considered universal, several reasons persist preventing Hungarian nationals to access healthcare services. For instance, a Hungarian citizen who lived abroad but is unable to show contributions to another country's healthcare system will not be able to access the Hungarian healthcare system free of charge. However, to the OECD, 100% of the total population is covered by universal health insurance, which is absolutely free for children, mothers or fathers with babies, students, pensioners, people with low income, handicapped people, priests and other church employees. In 2022 the cost of public health insurance is 8,400 HUF per month which is the equivalent of $23.69. The healthcare system underwent significant changes which also resulted in improving life expectancy and a very low infant mortality rate. According to the OECD Hungary spent 7.8% of its GDP on health care in 2012. Total health expenditure was $US1,688.7 per capita in 2011, US$1,098.3governmental-fund (65%) and US$590.4 private-fund (35%).
Italy is known for its generally very good health system, and the life expectancy is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 5th in the world for life expectancy, and low infant mortality. In comparison to other Western countries, Italy has a relatively low rate of adult obesity, as there are several health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. The proportion of daily smokers was 22% in 2012, down from 24.4% in 2000 but still slightly above the OECD average. Smoking in public places including bars, restaurants, night clubs and offices has been restricted to specially ventilated rooms since 2005.
In 2006, life expectancy for males in Cyprus was 79 and for females 82 years. Infant mortality in 2002 was 5 per 1,000 live births, comparing favourably to most developed nations.
Croatia has a universal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen. The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance and administered by the Croatian Health Insurance Fund. In 2012, annual compulsory healthcare related expenditures reached 21 billion kuna.
After a significant decline in earlier decades, crude birth rates in Armenia slightly increased from 13.0 in the year 1998 to 14.2 in 2015; this timeframe also showed a similar trajectory in the crude death rate, which grew from 8.6 to 9.3. Life expectancy at birth at 74.8 years was the 4th-highest among the Post-Soviet states in 2014.
As of 2019 Lithuanian life expectancy at birth was 76.0 and the infant mortality rate was 2.99 per 1,000 births. This is below the EU and OECD average.
Healthcare in Luxembourg is based on three fundamental principles: compulsory health insurance, free choice of healthcare provider for patients and compulsory compliance of providers in the set fixed costs for the services rendered. Citizens are covered by a healthcare system that provides medical, maternity and illness benefits and, for the elderly, attendance benefits. The extent of the coverage varies depending on the occupation of the individual. Those employed or receiving social security have full insurance coverage, and the self-employed and tradesmen are provided with both medical benefits and attendance benefits. That is all funded by taxes on citizens' incomes, payrolls and wages. However, the government covers the funding for maternity benefits as well as any other sector that needs additional funding. About 75% of the population purchases a complementary healthcare plan. About 99% of the people are covered under the state healthcare system.
New Zealand is a high income country, and this is reflected in the overall good health status of the population. However like other wealthy countries, New Zealand suffers from high rates of obesity and heart disease.
Government-guaranteed health care for all citizens of a country, often called universal health care, is a broad concept that has been implemented in several ways. The common denominator for all such programs is some form of government action aimed at broadly extending access to health care and setting minimum standards. Most implement universal health care through legislation, regulation, and taxation. Legislation and regulation direct what care must be provided, to whom, and on what basis.
This article summarizes healthcare in Texas. In 2022, the United Healthcare Foundation ranked Texas as the 38th healthiest state in the United States. Obesity, excessive drinking, maternal mortality, infant mortality, vaccinations, mental health, and limited access to healthcare are among the major public health issues facing Texas.