Human trafficking in Mozambique

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Mozambique is a source and, to a much lesser extent, a destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. The use of forced and bonded child laborers is common in rural areas of the country, often with the complicity of family members. Women and girls from these rural areas are also lured to cities with promises of employment or education, as well as to South Africa for involuntary domestic servitude and forced prostitution. NGO's report that Mozambican victims of sex traffickers were taken by traffickers to "training centers" in Eswatini and South Africa in preparation for an expected increase in demand for prostitution during the 2010 World Cup. Young Mozambican men and boys are subjected to conditions of forced labor in South African farms and mines; they often labor for months in South Africa without pay and under coercive conditions before being turned over to police for deportation as illegal migrants. Mozambican adults are subjected to forced labor and forced prostitution in Portugal. Women and girls from Rhodesia and Malawi who voluntarily migrate to Mozambique continue to be manipulated by traffickers into forced prostitution and domestic servitude subsequent to their arrival. There are an estimated 145,600 people living in slavery in Mozambique and countless more being taken unwillingly into South Africa.

Contents

Traffickers are typically part of loose, informal networks of Mozambican or South African citizens; however, larger Chinese and reportedly Nigerian trafficking syndicates are also active in Mozambique. Human traffickers' internal and cross-border routes are also used to smuggle illicit drugs; often, the same facilitators transport both drugs and trafficked victims. In addition, South Asian smugglers who move South Asian undocumented migrants throughout Africa reportedly also transport trafficking victims through Mozambique. Internal and transnational trafficking in persons for the purposes of forcible organ removal to support an offshoot of the traditional healing industry in South Africa and Mozambique is significant. Witch doctors in Mozambique and other countries forcibly remove various body parts from children and adults, either while the victims are still alive or immediately following violent death, for use in "traditional" medical concoctions intended to heal illness, foster economic advancement, or hurt enemies. [1]

The Government of Mozambique does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so. Despite these efforts, including work on the development of implementing regulations for its new anti-trafficking law, the government did not show evidence of increasing efforts to address human trafficking, particularly efforts to prosecute or convict trafficking offenders as it has done in the past, or to investigate continuing reports of government officials' complicity in trafficking crimes. [1]

The U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2 Watchlist" in 2017. [2]

Causes

Women's Issues

There is both an expectation for women to get married and to get married young so they are no longer a burden to their family financially. Women who remain unmarried are more at risk to be trafficked because of their limited economic opportunities (Britton). [3] Traditional Mozambican societies do not operate in favor of single women and this is what forces them to seek out other ways to make a living. It is reported that “global colonialism and imperialism reflect a series of unequal power relations and hierarchical power structures in which poor girls and women in general, and poor girls and women of color in particular, are located at the bottom of global power structures” (Gale). [4] This is very true in Mozambique and women make up the majority of people that are trafficked into South Africa. Women with black, brown, and gold skin tones are most at risk because they are seen as “exotic” which makes them desirable to others in the global sex trade (Gale). [4] In more traditional and rural areas of Mozambique, jobs can be denied to women based on their status, family name, and cultural background. In many situations women of a lower class are limited in the jobs that they are able to secure, leaving them with little money to buy essentials and take care of their families. In Mozambique, “Poverty distribution is heavily gendered, with female-headed households as most vulnerable group” (Women's Age Indicator). Poverty, in many cases, is a pipeline to human trafficking and women living in poverty are more exposed to this because they are likely to look for different forms of work to support themselves. Women desperate to find husbands are more likely to be lured by false pretenses, and women who do not get married by a certain age may be driven to find alternate forms of work putting them at risk for be trafficked.

Cultural Values

Traditional Mozambican values foster acceptance and trustworthiness of men  which plays to the advantage of many traffickers. Women specifically are taught to trust men because in Mozambique,  “Sexuality is often perceived as a site for women's subordination” (Arnfred). Marriage is an institution that gifts a woman's sexuality to her husband, and can impede her advancement in Mozambican society (Arnfred). [5] Women are taught to rely on men which can put them in vulnerable situations when it comes to trafficking.  A popular African proverb says,“If you want to go fast go alone. If you want to go far go together” (Tu) and this is what people abide by in Mozambique. [6] The idea that collectivism is the key to success is prominent in the minds of many Mozambicans living in traditional communities. People often trust that those around them have their best interest in mind and with the rocketing number of human trafficking cases of people being kidnapped from Mozambique to be sold in South Africa that is not always the case. Louisa, a girl that was kidnapped from her rural village, talked about her journey in an interview with Deutsche Welle News [7] and how she ended up in that situation. Louisa was walking home when she encountered a man who offered her work at his house to clean for him. When she got there he threatened her and took her to South Africa with no documentation. At the end of the interview her mother then said, “At fifteen my daughter had never encountered a person in our village who didn't tell her the truth” (DW News).

Unstable Domestic Economy

Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world with a high unemployment rate and a lack of infrastructure. Despite the rapid economic growth after its democratization, the wealth is not equally distributed but is mainly concentrated in the top ten percent. The average income of the top ten percent is five times higher than the national average income, the amount that corresponds to the half of the total rural income. [8] Amongst the poor rural population, Europe is often regarded as a land with opportunities, security and wealth. The young Mozambican population from the low-income household is often encouraged to undertake a risky journey to Europe for a better economic opportunity by their families.[ citation needed ] However, the migration to Europe makes them susceptible to become victims of human trafficking. The reinforcement of anti-trafficking policies adopted by European nations to combat human trafficking often ends up further marginalizing these migrants from developing countries such as Mozambique. As a consequence, these anti-trafficking policies result in rigorous immigration policies, which also involve forced deportation, thus threatening the security of the migrants from foreign countries. [9] In addition, the approach of international organizations deepend the disparity between the rich and the poor by putting an excessive emphasis on adopting market economies, privatizing national companies, and cutting national spending [10]

Types

Sex Trafficking

Although sex trafficking is often utilized as a synonymous term for prostitution, it is a concept that also includes pornography, exotic dancing, stripping, live sex shows, mail-order brides, military prostitution, and sexual tourism. [11] Forced prostitution is the most prevalent form of sex trafficking [12] in Southern Africa. However, the covert nature of the sex trafficking business makes it challenging to collect accurate data to evaluate the exact scope and nature of the business in the region, particularly on the exploitation of the victims in the pornography industry and sex brothels.

Organ Trafficking

It is reported that murders and human trafficking are committed to harvesting human organs in Mozambique. Witch doctors were often accused of creating a greater demand for human organs because of the belief that human genitals can bring fortune and prosperity. However, recent critics reveal that this myth that blames witch doctors as the root of the problem is fabricated by the police who are deeply involved in the human organ trafficking business. [13] Because of its proximity to South Africa, Mozambique can provide the South African organ trafficking business with an inexpensive, profitable option.

Efforts to Combat Human Trafficking

Prosecution

In September 2008, the government enacted a new comprehensive human trafficking law. The law prescribes penalties of 16 to 20 years' imprisonment for those recruiting or facilitating the exploitation of a person for purposes of prostitution, forced labor, slavery, or involuntary debt servitude; these penalties are sufficiently stringent and exceed those for other serious crimes. During 2009, the government again budgeted $360,000 to support enforcement of the law and for a second year did not allocate this funding to any government entity. Implementing regulations for the law have not been issued; without these regulations, the police were not generally in a position to arrest suspected trafficking offenders and conduct an investigation that could successfully support a court case. The government formed partnerships with NGO's to provide anti-trafficking seminars for new police officers throughout the country. Police reported arresting trafficking offenders and breaking up several trafficking schemes during the year, including the arrest of at least one suspected trafficking ringleader. In January 2010, police arrested a man in Beira for allegedly running a criminal ring involved in the sale of hard drugs and in sex trafficking. The media reported that the suspect had at least one police officer on her payroll. In March 2010, police arrested eight traffickers after being alerted by undercover journalists that the traffickers had offered to "sell" them several girls and women. Within weeks, all of the suspects were released on bail. Traffickers commonly bribed law enforcement officials to allow their movement of trafficking victims internally and across national borders into South Africa and Eswatini, sometimes without passports. There is no evidence of widespread government involvement in or tolerance of trafficking; however, there are known cases of government officials facilitating human trafficking. No officials have been investigated, detained, or prosecuted for complicity in trafficking crimes. For the first time, police began to keep statistics on trafficking victims; this data was not available at the time of publication. [1]

Protection

The Mozambican government suffers from limited resources and a lack of political commitment regarding human trafficking. Funding for victims' assistance remained rudimentary, and government officials regularly relied on NGOs to provide shelter, counseling, food, and rehabilitation. The government continued to lack formalized procedures for identifying potential victims of trafficking and referring them to organizations providing protective services. The Office of Assistance to Women and Vulnerable Children continued its partnership with a network of anti-trafficking NGOs to respond quickly to tips on potential trafficking cases and provide care and protection to victims. UNICEF helped police establish the first-ever police station specifically designed to assist women and children, including trafficking victims, in Maputo. A dedicated toll-free number, "116," became fully operational in November 2009, allowing persons to report crimes against children, including trafficking. Line "116" received 5,239 calls from November through December 2009, though it is not known how many of these were related to human trafficking. An NGO managed the country's only permanent shelter for child trafficking victims, which operated on land donated by the Moamba District government. The government encouraged victims to assist in the investigation and prosecution of traffickers and did not penalize victims for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficked. The government did not provide legal alternatives to the removal of foreign victims to countries where they would face hardship or retribution. [1]

Sex Trafficking Protections

The establishment of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized crime in 2000 is one of the policies being implemented by officials in order to combat human trafficking. Promoting women's empowerment is a way that the African Union and Southern African Development Community have chosen to fight human trafficking. It has proved to be hard for the government to prosecute crimes related to sex trafficking and provide support for victims. Government funding, community cooperation, and acceptance of the issue are part of what makes sex trafficking in Mozambique difficult to combat. The government does have action plans in place, but they are almost never followed through. Last year, “the government maintained inadequate protection efforts... and offered limited shelter, medical, and psychological assistance.” (U.S. Department of State). [14] Information reported to police is often not followed up on making it hard for the government to help those in need. Other public health related issues in the country often take priority to combating human trafficking does not always take priority in terms of funding. At risk groups have been identified by outside support systems, yet, “Maputo has ‘failed to identify or protect victims during the last year, and funds for the fight were not used in the best manner’”(VOA). [15] The government has not taken combating this issue a seriously they could and most of the money that goes towards to combating trafficking come from NGOs which can be taken away at any time.  

Governmental Efforts

The government's prevention efforts remained weak during the reporting period. The government did not launch a nationwide campaign to foster awareness of trafficking among government officials and private citizens. As a result, most Mozambicans, including many law enforcement officials, reportedly lacked a clear understanding of what constitutes trafficking. Officials met regularly with the Anti-Trafficking Forum, which provided a mechanism through which the government and its NGO partners could discuss trafficking issues and coordinate their anti-trafficking activities. Most anti-trafficking educational workshops were run by NGOs with some government participation. Media coverage of trafficking cases or issues significantly diminished over the past year, although a sting operation which led to the arrest of eight Mozambican and Chinese sex traffickers in March 2010 was featured prominently in the news. Law enforcement officials and partner NGOs monitored major border crossings and immigration patterns for indications of potential trafficking victims, but these officials remained prone to complicity with traffickers. The Ministry of Justice worked with a network of NGOs to develop an anti-trafficking strategy for the 2010 World Cup, which may increase the incidence of trafficked Mozambicans transported to South Africa for commercial sexual exploitation, but implementation was poor. The government did not take any significant measures to reduce the demand for forced labor or commercial sex acts during the year. [1]

Palermo Protocol

Mozambique is one of the 159 countries that ratified the Palermo protocols, the international legal framework designed to prevent human trafficking, particularly targeted at women and children, and to promote cooperation of different countries to eradicate human trafficking. Although the protocols are often criticized for the lack of appropriate evaluation process of each member state and the lack of clear guidance to identify human trafficking victims, [16] the Palermo protocols still hold significance as an international effort to combat human trafficking. The Palermo protocols have also been a foundation of the Publicação oficial da república de Moçambique. Lei no. 6/2008, a Mozambican legislation to counter human trafficking. [17] This legislation not only punishes the violators but also acknowledges the importance of rehabilitating the victims. It also advocates international cooperation to eradicate human trafficking to facilitate the repatriation of Mozambican victims who reside in other countries. However, legal institutions in many nations in Africa, including Mozambique, lack the authority to enact the law. [18]

Related Research Articles

Tanzania is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation. Boys are trafficked within the country for forced labor on farms, in mines, and in the informal business sector. Tanzanian girls from rural areas are trafficked to urban centers and the island of Zanzibar for domestic servitude and commercial sexual exploitation; some domestic workers fleeing abusive employers fall prey to forced prostitution. In some regions, unregistered employment agencies are involved in recruiting minors from rural areas to work as domestic helpers in the capital, where they are subject to exploitation. Tanzanian children and adults are reportedly trafficked to other countries including Mozambique, Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Ethiopia, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy and China. Trafficked children from Burundi and Kenya, as well as adults from Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Yemen, are trafficked for forced labor in Tanzania's mining, agricultural and domestic service sectors, and are sometimes also subjected to sex trafficking. The Government of Tanzania does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so.

Zambia is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation. Child prostitution exists in Zambia's urban centers, often encouraged or facilitated by relatives or acquaintances of the victim. Many Zambian child laborers, particularly those in the agriculture, domestic service, and fishing sectors, are also victims of human trafficking. Zambian women, lured by false employment or marriage offers, are trafficked to South Africa via Zimbabwe for sexual exploitation, and to Europe via Malawi. Zambia is a transit point for regional trafficking of women and children, particularly from Angola to Namibia for agricultural labor and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to South Africa. Malawian and Mozambican adults and children are occasionally trafficked to Zambia for forced agricultural labor.

Zimbabwe is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of forced labor and sexual exploitation. Large scale migration of Zimbabweans to surrounding countries—as they flee a progressively more desperate situation at home—has increased, and NGOs, international organizations, and governments in neighboring countries are reporting an upsurge in these Zimbabweans facing conditions of exploitation, including human trafficking. Rural Zimbabwean men, women, and children are trafficked internally to farms for agricultural labor and domestic servitude and to cities for domestic labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Women and children are trafficked for domestic labor and sexual exploitation, including in brothels, along both sides of the borders with Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zambia. Young men and boys are trafficked to South Africa for farm work, often laboring for months in South Africa without pay before "employers" have them arrested and deported as illegal immigrants. Young women and girls are lured to South Africa, the People's Republic of China, Egypt, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada with false employment offers that result in involuntary domestic servitude or commercial sexual exploitation. Men, women, and children from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia are trafficked through Zimbabwe en route to South Africa. Small numbers of South African girls are trafficked to Zimbabwe for domestic servitude. The government’s efforts to address trafficking at home have increased with the introduction of the National Action Plan (NAP) as well as the 2014 Trafficking in Persons Act. In addition, the trafficking situation in the country is worsening as more of the population is made vulnerable by declining socio-economic conditions.

Human trafficking in India, although illegal under Indian law, remains a significant problem. People are frequently illegally trafficked through India for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced/bonded labour. Although no reliable study of forced and bonded labour has been completed, NGOs estimate this problem affects 20 to 65 million Indians. Men, women and children are trafficked in India for diverse reasons. Women and girls are trafficked within the country for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced marriage, especially in those areas where the sex ratio is highly skewed in favour of men. Men and boys are trafficked for the purposes of labour, and may be sexually exploited by traffickers to serve as gigolos, massage experts, escorts, etc. A significant portion of children are subjected to forced labour as factory workers, domestic servants, beggars, and agriculture workers, and have been used as armed combatants by some terrorist and insurgent groups.

Indonesia is a source, transit, and destination country for women, children, and men trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. The greatest threat of trafficking facing Indonesian men and women is that posed by conditions of forced labor and debt bondage in more developed Asian countries and the Middle East.

Luxembourg is a destination country for women trafficked transnationally for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. During the reporting period, women were trafficked from Bulgaria and Ukraine. According to the Luxembourg Red Cross, an increasing number of women from Africa and Latin America are engaged in prostitution in the country, and could be victims of trafficking.

Angola is a source and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced prostitution and forced labor. Internally, trafficking victims are forced to labor in agriculture, construction, domestic servitude, and reportedly in artisanal diamond mines. Angolan women and children more often become victims of internal rather than transnational sex trafficking. Women and children are trafficked to South Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Namibia, and European nations, primarily Portugal. Traffickers take boys to Namibia for forced labor in cattle herding. Children are also forced to act as couriers in illegal cross-border trade between Namibia and Angola as part of a scheme to skirt import fees. Illegal migrants from the DRC voluntarily enter Angola's diamond-mining districts, where some are later reportedly subjected to forced labor or prostitution in the mining camps.

Austria is a destination and transit country for women, men, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor.

Barbados is a source and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. Some children in Barbados are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation in “transactional sex” wherein a third party such as a parent receives a benefit from the child's participation in sexual activity. Researchers identified patterns of transactional sex within families, most often by adult male caretakers such as step-fathers, as well as child prostitution outside the home. Women from the Dominican Republic, Guyana, and Jamaica voluntarily enter Barbados as illegal migrants, and some expect to engage in prostitution. Some of these women are exploited in forced prostitution subsequent to their arrival. Some other foreign women who entered the country illegally are exploited in involuntary domestic servitude in private homes. Foreign men have been transported to Barbados for the purpose of labor exploitation in construction and other sectors. Sex traffickers, primarily organized criminals from Guyana, form partnerships with pimps and brothel owners from Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados, and lure women to Barbados with offers of legitimate work. Trafficking victims tend to enter the country through legal means, usually by air; traffickers later use force and coercion to obtain and maintain the victims’ work in strip clubs, massage parlors, some private residences, and “entertainment clubs” which operate as brothels. Traffickers use methods such as threats of physical harm or deportation, debt bondage, false contracts, psychological abuse, and confinement to force victims to work in construction, the garment industry, agriculture, or private households.

Belarus is a source, destination, and transit country for women, men, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. The majority of identified Belarusian victims were females forced into prostitution abroad, including in: Russia, Germany, Poland, other European countries, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and the UAE. There were reports that women from low-income families in Belarus’ regions were subjected to forced prostitution in Minsk. Belarusian men, women, and children continued to be subjected to forced begging, as well as forced labor in the construction industry and other sectors in Russia. According to the Ministry of Interior, Belarusian single, unemployed females between the ages of 16 and 30 were most at risk of being trafficked. Human traffickers often used informal social networks to approach potential victims.

Eswatini is a source, destination, and transit country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically commercial sexual exploitation, involuntary domestic servitude, and forced labor in agriculture. Swazi girls, particularly orphans, are subjected to commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary domestic servitude in the cities of Mbabane and Manzini, as well as in South Africa and Mozambique.

Peru is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Several thousand persons are estimated to be subjected to conditions of forced labor within Peru, mainly in mining, logging, agriculture, brick making, and domestic servitude. Many trafficking victims are women and girls from impoverished rural regions of the Amazon, recruited and coerced into prostitution in urban nightclubs, bars, and brothels, often through false employment offers or promises of education. Indigenous persons are particularly vulnerable to debt bondage. Forced child labor remains a problem, particularly in informal gold mines, cocaine production, and transportation. There were reports the terrorist group Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, recruited children as soldiers and drug mules. To a lesser extent, Peruvians are subjected to forced prostitution in Ecuador, Spain, Italy, Japan, and the United States, and forced labor in Argentina, Chile, and Brazil. Peru also is a destination country for some Ecuadorian and Bolivian females in forced prostitution, and some Bolivian citizens in conditions of forced labor. Child sex tourism is present in Iquitos, Madre de Dios, and Cuzco. Traffickers reportedly operate with impunity in certain regions where there is little or no government presence.

Nicaragua is principally a source and transit country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. Nicaraguan women and children are trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation within the country as well as in neighboring countries, most often to El Salvador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and the United States. Trafficking victims are recruited in rural areas for work in urban centers, particularly Managua, and subsequently coerced into prostitution. Adults and children are subjected to conditions of forced labor in agriculture, the fishing industry, and for involuntary domestic servitude within the country and in Costa Rica. There are reports of some Nicaraguans forced to engage in drug trafficking. To a lesser extent, Nicaragua is a destination country for women and children recruited from neighboring countries for forced prostitution. Managua, Granada, Estelí, and San Juan del Sur are destinations for foreign child sex tourists from the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, and some travel agencies are reportedly complicit in promoting child sex tourism. Nicaragua is a transit country for migrants from Africa and East Asia en route to the United States; some may fall victim to human trafficking.

Greece is a transit, source and destination country for women and children who are subjected to human trafficking, specifically forced prostitution and conditions of forced labor for men, women, and children. Female sex trafficking victims originate primarily in Eastern Europe and former Soviet bloc countries. Traffickers use physical, emotional, and sexual abuse for coercion. Greece's European Union membership, coupled with a shared border with Turkey, means the country sees massive flows of illegal immigrants looking to enter the EU. Traffickers also use Greece not only as a destination but also as transit stop and also as a source country where even Greek women are prostituted on the way to Western Europe.

Malawi is primarily a source country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and forced prostitution within the country and abroad. Most Malawian trafficking victims are exploited internally, though Malawian victims of sex and labor trafficking have also been identified in South Africa, Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and parts of Europe. To a lesser extent, Malawi is a transit point for foreign victims and a destination country for men, women, and children from Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe subjected to conditions of forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation. Within the country, some children are forced into domestic servitude, cattle herding, agricultural labor, and menial work in various small businesses. Exploited girls and women become "bar girls" at local bars and rest houses where they are coerced to have sex with customers in exchange for room and board. Forced labor in agriculture is often found on tobacco plantations. Labor traffickers are often villagers who have moved to urban areas and subsequently recruit children from their original villages through offers of good jobs. Brothel owners or other prostitution facilitators lure girls with promises of nice clothing and lodging. Upon arrival, they charge the girl high rental fees for these items and instruct her how to engage in prostitution to pay off the debt. South African and Tanzanian long-distance truck drivers and mini-bus operators move victims across porous borders by avoiding immigration checkpoints. Some local businesswomen who also travel regularly to neighboring countries to buy clothing for import have been identified as traffickers. Reports of European tourists paying for sex with teenage boys and girls continue.

Montenegro is a transit, source, and destination country for men, women, and girls who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced prostitution and forced labor. Trafficking victims are mostly females from Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria and Montenegro, who migrate or are smuggled through the country en route to other destinations and subjected to conditions of forced prostitution in Montenegro. Roma children are coerced into organized street begging in the country. According to NGOs and international experts, mainly foreign men and boys are subjected to forced labor in Montenegro's growing construction industry. Montenegrin women and girls are subjected to forced prostitution within the country and in other Balkan countries; anecdotal reports indicate at least one Montenegrin girl was subjected to conditions of forced prostitution in Serbia during the reporting period. Anecdotal reports in 2009 also indicated some women and girls from Serbia and other countries in this region are subjected to conditions of forced prostitution in Montenegro. Criminal networks operating in Montenegro's expanding tourism industry are reportedly engaged in trafficking for the purpose forced prostitution. According to the Human Rights Commissioner for the Council of Europe, several sources question the Montenegrin government's official stance that Montenegro does not have a considerable trafficking problem.

Human trafficking in Brazil is an ongoing problem. Brazil is a source country for men, women, girls, and boys subjected to human trafficking, specifically forced prostitution within the country and abroad, as well as a source country for men and boys in forced labor within the country. The United States Department of Homeland Security, describes human trafficking as "the use of force, fraud, or coercion to obtain some type of labor or commercial sex act."

Human trafficking in the Ivory Coast refers to the practice of forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation which uses Côte d'Ivoire a source, transit, and destination country for women and children who are trafficked for these purposes. Trafficking within the country's borders is more prevalent, with victims primarily trafficked from the north of the country to the more economically prosperous south. Boys from Ghana, Mali, and Burkina Faso are subjected to forced labour in the agricultural sector, including on cocoa, coffee, pineapple, and rubber plantations; boys from Ghana are forced to labour in the mining sector; boys from Togo are forced to work in construction; and boys from Benin are forced to work in carpentry and construction. Girls recruited from Ghana, Togo, and Benin to work as domestic servants and street vendors often are subjected to conditions of forced labour. Women and girls are also recruited from Ghana and Nigeria to work as waitresses in restaurants and bars and are subsequently subjected to forced prostitution. Trafficked children often face harsh treatment and extreme working conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex trafficking in Europe</span> Overview of sex trafficking in Europe

Sex trafficking is defined as the transportation of persons by means of coercion, deception and/or forced into exploitative and slavery-like conditions and is commonly associated with organized crime.

Sex trafficking in Japan is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the country. Japan is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons.

References

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  3. ↑ "Animal Grafts". The American Naturalist. 33 (385): 62. 1899. doi:10.1086/277107. JSTOR   2454178.
  4. 1 2 Hartwell, John (2008), Human Trafficking: Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, archived from the original on 2011-05-21, retrieved 2019-08-20
  5. ↑ Arnfred, Signe (2011). "Rethinking Gender in Africa". Sexuality and Gender Politics in Mozambique: Rethinking Gender in Africa. Boydell and Brewer. ISBN   9781847010353. JSTOR   10.7722/j.cttn343m.
  6. ↑ Tu (October 18, 2018). "Mozambican Proverbs". proverbicals.
  7. ↑ Iroanya, Richard Obinna (2018), "Policy Responses to Human Trafficking in Mozambique and South Africa", Human Trafficking and Security in Southern Africa, Springer International Publishing, pp. 185–224, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71988-7_6, ISBN   9783319719870
  8. ↑ Cunguara, Benedito; Hanlon, Joseph (2010). "Poverty Is Not Being Reduced in Mozambique". Crisis States Working Papers Series. 2: 4–5. Archived from the original on 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2022-04-22– via LSE Research Online.
  9. ↑ Sharma, Nandita (2005). "Anti-trafficking rhetoric and the making of a global apartheid". NWSA Journal. 17 (3): 88–111. JSTOR   4317159 – via JSTOR.
  10. ↑ Hanlon, Joseph; Barrientos, Armando; Hulme, David (2012). Just Give Money to the Poor: The Development Revolution from the Global South. Kumarian Press. pp. 143–145. ISBN   9781565493339.
  11. ↑ Deshpande, Neha A.; Nour, Nawal M. (2013). "Sex Trafficking of Women and Girls". Reviews in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 6 (1): e22–e27. PMC   3651545 . PMID   23687554.
  12. ↑ Swart, D. N. (2012). "Human trafficking and the exploitation of women and children in a Southern and South African context". Child Abuse Research in South Africa. 13: 71. hdl:10520/EJC120054 – via Sabinet African Journals.
  13. ↑ Geis, Gilbert; Brown, Gregory C. (2008). "The Transnational Traffic in Human Body Parts". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 24 (3): 218–219. doi:10.1177/1043986208318207. S2CID   144873898 – via SAGE Journals.
  14. ↑ "Mozambique". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  15. ↑ Junior, Alfredo. "Poverty, Witchcraft Make Mozambique Risky for Bald Men". VOA. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  16. ↑ Milivojevic, Sanja; Segrave, Marie (2012). "Evaluating responses to human trafficking: A review of international, regional and national counter-trafficking mechanisms". Human Trafficking: 233–257 – via ProQuest EBook Central.
  17. ↑ Iroanya, Richard Obinna (2014). "Human Trafficking with Specific Reference to South African and Mozambican Counter-Trafficking Legislation". Acta Criminologica. 27: 109–110. hdl:10520/EJC165945 – via Sabinet African Journals.
  18. ↑ Devor, C. P. (2013). An analysis of the continuation and expansion of transnational organized crime: The case of human trafficking in Mozambique. Stellenbosch University (Thesis). pp. 40–43.
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