Human trafficking in Southeast Asia

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Human trafficking in Southeast Asia has long been a problem for the area and is still prevalent today. It has been observed that as economies continue to grow, the demand for labor is at an all-time high in the industrial sector and the sex tourism sector. A mix of impoverished individuals and the desire for more wealth creates an environment for human traffickers to benefit in the Southeast Asia region. Many nations within the region have taken preventive measures to end human trafficking within their borders and punish traffickers operating there.

Contents

Nature of the problem

Human trafficking, is defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in their Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons document as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.” [1] This definition applies to harvesting of organs, slavery or forced labor, and sexual exploitation. According to an International Labour Organization (ILO) a report using a methodology based on national surveys reported, as recently as 2012, 20.9 million people were being held against their will in various forms of forced labor around the world. The majority of these laborers were women at 55% and males at 45%. [2] According to Besler, annual profits from industries specializing in forced labor have averaged 44.3 billion dollars in 2005. [3]

Beyond the scope Southeast Asia, the Asia-Pacific region contains the largest number of forced laborers anywhere in the world but only has a prevalence rate of 3.3 per 1000, which is one of the lower prevalence rates when compared by region. [2] This is due to the fact that the Asia-Pacific region has a much larger population when compared to the rest of the world's regions. In Southeast Asia human trafficking is widely regarded as interregional with laborers being collected from countries within the region and ultimately working within the region. Victims from Southeast Asia have also been found in many other countries around the globe. In Southeast Asia human trafficking consists of forced sexual labor and forced labor which, in many countries in Southeast Asia, can lead to mixed forms of human trafficking. In Thailand and Malaysia trafficking mainly takes the form of sexual exploitation, while in Indonesia forced labor is observed is more prevalent, but both forms of sexual and forced labor can be found. [4] It is estimated that 10,000 laborers are deceived or captured into forced labor annually in the region. [4]

Causes

The main causes of human trafficking in Southeast Asia are universal factors such as poverty and globalization. According to Betz, poverty is not the root of human trafficking and that there are other factors such as the desire to have access to upward mobility and knowledge on the wealth that can be gained from working in urban cities, that ultimately attracts impoverished individuals to human traffickers. [5] Betz claims the industrialization of the region in the mid 20th century led to a clear division between growing economies and stagnant ones. This industrialization of booming economies, like that of Thailand and Singapore created a draw for poor migrants seeking upward mobility and individuals wanting to leave war torn countries. [5] These migrants were an untapped resource in growing economies that had already exhausted the cheap labor from within its borders. A high supply of migrant workers seeking employment and high demand from an economy seeking cheap labor creates a perfect combination for human traffickers to thrive. Still in the new millennium the market for forced labor is profitable; class-divisions and the economies' need for unskilled labor keep traffickers in the market. [5]

The sex industry emerged in Southeast Asia in the mid 20th century as a way for women to generate more income for struggling migrants and locals trying to support families or themselves. Nicola Piper claims the industry's growth throughout the region can be attributed to growing tourism and military bases that dotted the region during times of major wars. Sex industries first catered to military personnel on leave from bases but as military installations began to recede the industry turned its attention to growing tourism. [6] With little intervention from governments due to potential harm to the tourism market, the sex industry's growth was uninhibited. [7] Even as the industry is looked down upon today there is still a large underground market that is demanding from traffickers. [8]


Although many factors play into the human trafficking crisis in Southeast Asia, socioeconomic status is one of the main contributors to the issue. People who live in poverty and poor living conditions become huge targets to traffickers. The people in the villages of Southeast Asia who are desperate for work, are being promised jobs, and then being forced into slavery or sold for ransom (Yang 2-3). Many victims are kept in camps where they are often even killed. The largest form of human trafficking consists of prostitution, involving primarily women and children. In many of these remote villages in Southeast Asia, prostitution and trafficking are sadly unavoidable. This financial crisis has even led to some people selling themselves into prostitution or falling into false opportunities for work (Yang 3). It has even been believed that parents in Thailand have sold their children directly into the sex industry due to their need for money (Ecpat). This is proof of the great need in Southeast Asia for financial and economic help.


Another heartbreaking factor that has contributed to human trafficking in Southeast Asia is the rise in child pornography. Young children as young as twelve years old are taken to Thailand to engage in commercial sex work (Ecpat). It is a terrifying reality that the increased usage of the internet by children has led to a rise in incidents of violence and sexual exploitation. Many sexual offenders use technology to contact or deceive children. Within the past year, approximately 20% of children between the ages of twelve and seventeen who use the internet have been a victim of sexual exploitation or abuse (Unicef). This can be prevented by spreading awareness about online predators and providing children with a safe place to tell someone if they experience or witness any of these things.

The lack of effective law enforcement is another issue that has been found to contribute to Southeast Asia’s human trafficking crisis. Most countries have recognized human trafficking as a pressing issue but some countries, Indonesia being one, have taken little to no action to prevent the issue. There was no law in Indonesia specifically against sex trafficking until the year of 2003 (Betz 63). There have also been loopholes found in the laws of Southeast Asia regarding the age of consent and child pornography which have led to exploitation and the production and distribution of child pornography (Rahamathulla). The enforcement of laws pertaining to human trafficking and sexual exploitation could be a huge step towards justice for victims and survivors of trafficking.


Source countries

Philippines is a source country and transit country when it comes to forced labor and sexual exploitation. Thailand is one of the biggest suppliers of forced labor in the Southeast Asia region and around the globe. [9] Most of the forced laborers are brought in from nearby Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Migrants voluntarily migrate into Thailand where they can end up in forced labor or sold into its own sex industry. [10]

Laos is labeled as a source country of men, women, and children for the sex slave industry and the forced labor industry. Many of the Lao migrants move to countries like Thailand or are sent to China from a transit country. [11] Lao migrants are mainly flowed into sectors of intensive labor with little pay. 70 percent of migrants from Laos are female and many of them are sought for the use of domestic labor. In Thailand there are no labor protection for domestic workers, which can lead to risks for the migrant Lao females. [12]

Cambodia is a source country for migrants due to high levels of unemployment and poverty. This leaves natives with little opportunity and high levels of risk for human trafficking. Many Cambodian women are trafficked into sexual or labor industries, while men are trafficked into the fishing, agricultural and construction sectors in many countries within the Southeast Asian region. [12]

Myanmar's history of rule under a military regime is one of the reasons the country is considered a source country. The regime's poor management of the economy and human rights abuse put the countries citizens at risk for human trafficking. Men, women and children are subject to labor exploitation in Thailand, China, Pakistan, South Korea and Macau. [11] Children are trafficked in Thailand to be forced into begging, while young girls are trafficked into China to work in the sex slave industry. [13]

Destination countries

Philippines is a destination country in addition to being source country. Migrants from several countries looking for work are attracted to Thailand's promising economy. Thailand's economy also heavily relies on migrant workers due to the fact that it is strongly labor-intensive, with major sectors being construction, fishing and commercial agriculture. [10]

Cambodia is a destination country for females being trafficked into the sex trade industry. Cambodia has one of the largest sources of demand for child prostitution and sex tourism in the region. Females are brought from rural regions of Cambodia and Vietnam to major cities where they are sold or sexually exploited. [14]

Vietnam is a destination country for children who are subjected to forced sexual labor and labor trafficking. Children from rural areas of the country are brought into major cities where through threats and debt-bondage are forced into the sex trade, begging industry, and industrial sectors. With Vietnam being a destination for child sex tourism, the large demand gives traffickers incentives to recruit children into the trade. [10]

Victims

Most of the victims that are currently working under forced labor conditions are doing so because they were either mislead about job opportunities or were enslaved or forced to against their will. [10] According to a policy brief on human trafficking in Southeast Asia, although victims include girls, women, boys, and men the majority are women. Women tend to be more highly targeted by traffickers due to the fact that they are seeking opportunity in an area of the world where limited economic opportunities are available for them. Unskilled and poorly educated women are commonly led into human trafficking. [12] According to the UNODC report, the numbers for women and men in forced labor may be skewed due to the fact that only a few countries released the numbers for adult men. The forced labor market in this region also is dominated by male adults and females while the trade of children is evident it is considered small in comparison to the total. Most of these workers are undocumented and from different countries of origin than the country they work in. Countries like Thailand and Laos attract migrants of similar cultural backgrounds and language. Ethnic majority migrants from Laos are attracted to the similarities between the two countries and migrate to Thailand where they can assimilate easily. [10] The combination of undocumented workers and similar cultures can cause problems for authorities to properly document and estimate the number of trafficked persons without confusing them for illegal immigrants and locals. [4]

Traffickers

Three countries provided data showing that in Southeast Asia more women are prosecuted than men for crimes in human trafficking. The data also show that the participation rates among females in the trafficking business is trending equal to or higher than males. Traffickers in Southeast Asia are of both genders but in this region female proportions are higher than that of ones in the Americas or in Africa. Japan reported that traffickers of foreign nationalities have been increasing over the past several years. In 2006 up until 2009, 7 percent of persons convicted were foreign nationals while in 2009 that number had risen to 23 percent. [4]

Prevention policies

The United Nations (UN) has released guidelines on how human trafficking can be prevented on an international scale. According to the guidelines nations should identify demand as a major cause for trafficking to exist. It is also recommended that poverty, inequality and discrimination be examined as these factors, depending on prevalence, can lead to trafficking. [15] According to a report on human trafficking prevention, it is recommended that it is the government's job to improve the options that are available to its citizens and migrants through various programs that will lead to an overall improved life. Education on various opportunities and the many dangers of migrating through the help of human traffickers. Governments can also help by increasing law enforcement against traffickers to meet legal obligations and by providing proper identification to all citizens. [16]

The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (sometimes referred to as the Trafficking Protocol) was created by the UN in order to help nations with human trafficking issues. Its main purposes are to create a guideline to initiate measures to prevent and combat human trafficking within the countries borders. The protocol is also used for the assistance and protection of the victims associated with human trafficking, while also creating cooperation between the parties of the state. [17] All nations within Southeast Asia have signed and ratified this protocol. The most recent country to ratify the protocol is Thailand, in 2013. [18]

The United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families is an agreement that aims to make connections between human rights and migrant workers as well as their families. The agreement stresses the importance of migrant labor and the recognition that should be rewarded to the migrant worker, also arguing that the migrant worker is subject to equality and protection. [19] This agreement has yet to be signed by many nations in Southeast Asia but there are a few that have signed and ratified the agreement like Indonesia and the Philippines and Cambodia which is yet to ratify. [12]

Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act are laws passed by many countries in Southeast Asia to prevent traffickers from using abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power and giving or receiving money to obtain consent from the individual for control over them as a means for the recruitment, transportation, harboring of individuals by means of force or threats, sale, lending and hiring of an individual with or without their consent. [20] Countries such as Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Philippines, Cambodia and Indonesia all have their own Anti-Trafficking in Person Acts that are used to prevent human trafficking and prosecute those who violate this act. [21]

Related Research Articles

Child sex tourism (CST) is tourism for the purpose of engaging in the prostitution of children, which is commercially facilitated child sexual abuse. The definition of child in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is "every human being below the age of 18 years". Child sex tourism results in both mental and physical consequences for the exploited children, which may include sexually transmitted infections, "drug addiction, pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and death", according to the State Department of the United States. Child sex tourism, part of the multibillion-dollar global sex tourism industry, is a form of child prostitution within the wider issue of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Child sex tourism victimizes approximately 2 million children around the world. The children who perform as prostitutes in the child sex tourism trade often have been lured or abducted into sexual slavery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Cambodia</span>

Cambodia is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking. The traffickers are reportedly organized crime syndicates, parents, relatives, friends, intimate partners, and neighbors. Despite human trafficking being a crime in Cambodia, the country has a significant child sex tourism problem; some children are sold by their parents, while others are lured by what they think are legitimate job offers like waitressing, but then are forced into prostitution. Children are often held captive, beaten, and starved to force them into prostitution.

According to the United States Department of State, "Thailand is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children subjected to forced labour and sex trafficking." Thailand's relative prosperity attracts migrants from neighboring countries who flee conditions of poverty and, in the case of Burma, military repression. Significant illegal migration to Thailand presents traffickers with opportunities to coerce or defraud undocumented migrants into involuntary servitude or sexual exploitation. Police who investigated reaching high-profile authorities also received death threats in 2015.

Vietnam is primarily a source country for women and children trafficked for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women and children are trafficked to the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C), Cambodia, Thailand, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Macau for sexual exploitation. Vietnamese women are trafficked to the P.R.C., Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea via fraudulent or misrepresented marriages for commercial exploitation or forced labor. Vietnam is also a source country for men and women who migrate willingly and legally for work in the construction, fishing, or manufacturing sectors in Malaysia, Taiwan, P.R.C., Thailand, and the Middle East but subsequently face conditions of forced labor or debt bondage. Vietnam is a destination country for Cambodian children trafficked to urban centers for forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation. Vietnam has an internal trafficking problem with women and children from rural areas trafficked to urban centers for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Vietnam is increasingly a destination for child sex tourism, with perpetrators from Japan, the Republic of Korea, the P.R.C., Taiwan, the UK, Australia, Europe, and the U.S. In 2007, an Australian non-governmental organization (NGO) uncovered 80 cases of commercial sexual exploitation of children by foreign tourists in the Sa Pa tourist area of Vietnam alone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking</span> Trade of humans for exploitation

Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation.

Indonesia is a source, transit, and destination country for women, children, and men trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. The greatest threat of trafficking facing Indonesian men and women is that posed by conditions of forced labor and debt bondage in more developed Asian countries and the Middle East.

Italy is a destination and transit country for women, children, and men trafficked transnationally for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labor. Women and children are trafficked mainly from Nigeria, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, Albania, and Ukraine but also from Russia, South America, North and East Africa, the Middle East, China, and Uzbekistan. Chinese men and women are trafficked to Italy for the purpose of forced labor. Roma children continue to be trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced begging. Reportedly, an increasing number of victims are trafficked for labor, mostly in the agricultural sector. According to one NGO, 90 percent of foreign seasonal workers are unregistered and two-thirds are in Italy illegally, rendering them vulnerable to trafficking. The top five source countries for agricultural workers are Romania, Pakistan, Albania, and Ivory Coast. Traffickers reportedly are moving victims more frequently within Italy, often keeping victims in major cities for only a few months at a time, in an attempt to evade police detection.

Thailand is a centre for child sex tourism and child prostitution. Even though domestic and international authorities work to protect children from sexual abuse, the problem still persists in Thailand and many other Southeast Asian countries. Child prostitution, like other forms of child sexual abuse, not only causes death and high morbidity rates in millions of children but also violates their rights and dignity.

Transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking are being made to prevent human trafficking in specific countries and around the world.

Sex trafficking in Thailand is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the Kingdom of Thailand. Thailand is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sex trafficking. The sexual exploitation of children in Thailand is a problem. In Thailand, close to 40,000 children under the age of 16 are believed to be in the sex trade, working in clubs, bars, and brothels.

Belgium is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Victims originate in Eastern Europe, Africa, East Asia, as well as Brazil and India. Some victims are smuggled through Belgium to other European countries, where they are subjected to forced labor and forced prostitution. Male victims are subjected to forced labor and exploitation in restaurants, bars, sweatshops, horticulture sites, fruit farms, construction sites, and retail shops. There were reportedly seven Belgian women subjected to forced prostitution in Luxembourg in 2009. According to a 2009 ECPAT Report, the majority of girls and children subjected to forced prostitution in Belgium originate from Balkan and CIS countries, Eastern Europe, Asia and West Africa ; some young foreign boys are exploited in prostitution in major cities in the country. Local observers also report that a large portion of children trafficked in Belgium are unaccompanied, vulnerable asylum seekers and refugees. Criminal organizations from Thailand use Thai massage parlors in Belgium, which are run by Belgian managers, to sexually exploit young Thai women. These networks are involved in human smuggling and trafficking to exploit victims economically and sexually. Belgium is not only a destination country, but also a transit country for children to be transported to other European country destinations.

Human trafficking in Nepal is a growing criminal industry affecting multiple other countries beyond Nepal, primarily across Asia and the Middle East. Nepal is mainly a source country for men, women and children subjected to the forced labor and sex trafficking. U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2" in 2017.

Human trafficking is an act of recruiting, transporting, and harboring people against their will; usually by using force. People who are trafficked are mostly used for sexual purposes or illegal work. These acts include: forced marriages, trafficking for human organs, and gaining members for organized crimes. Every country in the world deals with this crime, and are usually classified as transit countries, target countries, or source countries. Guatemala is a part of North America, which is a target country; this means they contain human trafficking victims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in China</span>

China is a main source and also a significant transit and destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labour and forced prostitution. Women and children from China are trafficked to Africa, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, and North America, predominantly Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and Japan for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour. Women and children from Myanmar, Vietnam, Mongolia, former USSR, North Korea, Romania, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, and Ghana are trafficked to China for commercial sexual exploitation and forced labour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in the Middle East</span>

The trafficking of persons is the fastest growing and most profitable criminal activity after drug and arms trafficking. According to the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, human trafficking is defined as follows: “Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.”

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Texas</span>

Human trafficking in Texas is the illegal trade of human beings as it occurs in the state of Texas. It is a modern-day form of slavery and usually involves commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor, both domestic and agricultural.

Human Trafficking or "trafficking in persons" is the recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing, or obtaining a person for mainly the purposes of forced labor or prostitution. Other reasons for human trafficking are the removal of organs, forced marriage, and other exploitations. South America is one of the biggest source and destination locations in the world and has struggled with the issue for many years. The ILO estimates that of the 20.9 million victims of human trafficking in 2012, 1.8 million were from Latin America. There are many factors that cause human trafficking, like a high demand for domestic servants, sex laborers, and factory workers, the existence of already established trafficking networks that often take advantage of young women and children, corruption in the governments and local law enforcement agencies, a governmental disinterest in the issue and a lack of opportunity for women in South American regions where trafficking occurs. People exploited in human trafficking are often impoverished, members of indigenous peoples, unemployed, victims of abuse, illiterate, substance users, homeless, or involved in gang activity. Research by the United States Department of State has also found that LGBTQ+ and transgender people are vulnerable to human trafficking. By far, sex trafficking is the leading type of human trafficking, making up 79 percent of all human trafficking. This is then followed by forced labor at 18 percent. About 20 percent of trafficking victims are children. Primary destinations for trafficking and illegal immigration are the United States, Spain, Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Canada. Globalization, capitalism and societal attitudes facilitate and reduce the barriers to human trafficking.

Sex trafficking in China is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the People's Republic of China. It is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons.

Sex trafficking in Japan is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the country. Japan is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex trafficking in South Korea</span> Overview of sex trafficking in South Korea

Sex trafficking in South Korea is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation and slavery that occurs in the Republic of Korea. South Korea is a country of origin, destination, and transit for sexually trafficked persons. Sex trafficking victims in the country are from South Korea and foreigners.

References

  1. ↑ "What is Human Trafficking?". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 2019-07-29.
  2. 1 2 ILO Special Action Programme to combat forced labor. (2012) "ILO 2012 Global estimate of forced labor: Executive summary" Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---declaration/documents/publication/wcms_181953.pdf
  3. ↑ Besler, P. "All Forms of Forced Labor" Forced Labor and Human Trafficking: Estimating the Profits. (2005) 16. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=forcedlabor
  4. 1 2 3 4 UNODC, "Global Report on Trafficking in Persons" 2012. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/Trafficking_in_Persons_2012_web.pdf
  5. 1 2 3 Betz, Diana (June 2009). Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia: Causes and Implications (PDF) (M.A. thesis). Naval Postgraduate School. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 1, 2020.
  6. ↑ Piper, Nicola (2005). A Problem By a Different Name?. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  7. ↑ Michael Hitchcock, Victor King, Michael Parnwell, eds., Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and New Directions (Copenhagen, Denmark: NIAS Press, 2008), 227.
  8. ↑ Lim, The Sex Sector, 15
  9. ↑ “Thailand: Sea Slavery | #TheOutlawOcean - YouTube.” www.youtube.com, 6 Mar. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ImT83iJPtk&feature=emb_title. Accessed 26 Oct. 2020.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. "Trafficking in Persons Report (Country Narratives: S-Z)". U.S. Department of State.
  11. 1 2 Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. "Trafficking in Persons Report (Country Narratives: Countries G-M)". U.S. Department of State.
  12. 1 2 3 4 "Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia" (PDF). AFPPD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-14.
  13. ↑ United Nations Inter-Agency Project On Human Trafficking. "UNIAP Myanmar". Archived from the original on 2009-09-06.
  14. ↑ Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. "Trafficking in Persons Report (Country Narratives: Countries A through F)". U.S. Department of State.
  15. ↑ Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. "Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking" (PDF).
  16. ↑ International Centre for Criminal Law Reform. "Towards Human Trafficking Prevention: A Discussion Document" (PDF).
  17. ↑ Office of the United Nations. "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-24.
  18. ↑ Thailand Ratifies UN Convention against Transnatio - dead link
  19. ↑ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. "International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families".
  20. ↑ humantrafficking.org. "Government Laws". Archived from the original on 2014-04-29.
  21. ↑ United Nations Inter-Agency Project On Human Trafficking. "International Trafficking in Persons Laws". Archived from the original on 2010-10-27. Retrieved 2014-04-28.

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