Slavery in Portugal existed since before the country's formation. During the pre-independence period, inhabitants of the current Portuguese territory were often enslaved and they enslaved others. After independence, during the existence of the Kingdom of Portugal, the country played a leading role in the Atlantic slave trade, which involved the mass trade and transportation of slaves from Africa and other parts of the world to the Americas. The import of black slaves was banned in European Portugal in 1761 by the Marquis of Pombal, and at the same time, the trade of black slaves to Brazil was encouraged, with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis.[1][2] Slavery in Portugal was only abolished in 1869.[3][4]
The Atlantic slave trade began circa 1336 or 1341,[5][6][7][8] when Portuguese traders brought the first canarian slaves to Europe.[9] In 1526, Portuguese mariners carried the first shipload of African slaves to Brazil in the Americas, establishing the triangular Atlantic slave trade.
Slavery was a major economic and social institution in Europe during the classical era and a great deal is known about the ancient Greeks and Romans in relation to the topic. Rome added Portugal to its empire (2nd century BC), the latter a province of Lusitania at the time, and the name of the future kingdom was derived from "Portucale", a Roman and post-Roman settlement situated at the mouth of the Douro River. The details of slavery in ancient Rome slavery in Roman Portugal are not well-known; however, there were several forms of slavery, including enslaved miners and domestic servants.
Visigothic and Suebi kingdoms
The Visigoths and the Suebi (Germanic tribes), of the 5th century AD, seized control of the Iberian Peninsula as the Roman Empire fell. At the time, Portugal did not exist as a separate kingdom, but was primarily a part of the Visigothic Iberian kingdom (the Visigothic ruling class lived apart and heavily taxed the native population). However, during this period, a gradual transition to feudalism and serfdom was occurring throughout Europe.
After the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century, in which Moors from North Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigothic rulers of Iberia, the territory of both modern-day Portugal and Spain fell under Islamic control. The pattern of slavery and serfdom in the Iberian Peninsula differs from the rest of Western Europe due to the Islamic conquest. They established Moorish kingdoms in Iberia, including the area that is occupied by modern Portugal. Islamic Ibera became known as al-Andalus.
Al-Andalus was described in the Muslim world as the "land of jihad" or dar al-harb, a religious border land in a state of constant war with the infidels (kafir), which by Islamic Law was a legitimate zone for enslavement, and slaves were termed as coming from three different zones in Christian Iberia: Galicians from the northwest, Basques or Vascones from the central north, and Franks from the northeast and France.[10]
Trade ties between the Moorish kingdoms and the North African Moorish state led to a greater flow of trade within those geographical areas. In addition, the Moors engaged sections of Spaniards and Portuguese Christians in slave labor. The Moors used ethnic European slaves: 1/12 of Iberian population were slave Europeans, less than 1% of Iberia were Moors and more than 99% were native Iberians. Periodic Arab and Moorish raiding expeditions were sent from Islamic Iberia to ravage the remaining Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back stolen goods and slaves.
The medieval Iberian Peninsula was the scene of episodic warfare among Muslims and Christians during the reconquista. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and people. For example, in a raid on Lisbon in 1189 the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, and his governor of Córdoba took 3,000 Christian slaves in a subsequent attack upon Silves in 1191.[11] In the Almohad raid to Evora in Portugal in 1181–82, 400 women were taken captives and put for sale in the slave market of Seville. [12] The governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, held 3,000 Christian slaves in 1191.[citation needed] In addition, the Christian Iberians who lived within Arab and Moorish-ruled territories were subject to specific laws and taxes for state protection.[citation needed]
Muslim Moors who converted to Christianity, known as Moriscos, were enslaved by the Portuguese during the Reconquista; 9.3 per cent of slaves in southern Portugal were Moors[13] and many Moors were enslaved in 16th-century Portugal.[14] It has been documented that other slaves were treated better than Moriscos, the slaves were less than 1% of population.[15]
After the Reconquista period, Moorish slaves began to outnumber Slavic slaves in both importance and numbers in Portugal.[16]
The prolonged conflicts between Moors and Christians on the Iberian Peninsula, driven by struggles for survival, laid the groundwork for the emergence of slavery as a byproduct of relentless violence.[17] This historical context set the stage for Portugal's slave trade, which began out of economic and military necessities and expanded gradually.[18] By the early 15th century, southern Portugal faced severe labor shortages in its sugarcane fields, causing escalating labor costs and prompting complaints from landowners as farmers abandoned the land. This economic strain led to the arrival of the first ship carrying captives from the Sahara coast in 1441, marking the integration of Moorish slaves as an essential labor force in Portuguese agriculture and spurring the development of slavery laws.[19]
Slavery in Islamic military campaigns
Centuries earlier, during the 11th to 13th centuries, the Almoravid and Almohad invasions of Iberia introduced another dimension to slavery, with non-Islamized West African Black slaves imported as soldiers and organized into military units.[20] This practice was underpinned by figures like Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who dehumanized Black slaves by likening them to animals, providing a racial justification for their enslavement.[21] Similarly, Islamic states highly valued Christian slaves as prized spoils of war, often noting that those redeemed through ransom returned profoundly altered, stripped of individuality and autonomy.[22]
Economic pressures and the rise of the slave trade
Meanwhile, Portugal's own system of serfdom was waning by the 13th century, with peasants enjoying unrestricted mobility, reflecting a shift in labor dynamics that contrasted with the growing reliance on enslaved labor.[23] This evolving economic landscape culminated in Portugal's 1415 conquest of Ceuta, a Muslim city in Morocco, which, while failing to secure control over Moroccan wheat production, proved a pivotal moment in expanding Portuguese maritime dominance, further intertwining slavery with the nation's economic and imperial ambitions.[24]
African slaves prior to 1441 were predominately Berbers and Arabs from the North African Barbary Coast, known as "Moors" to the Iberians. They were typically enslaved during wars and conquests between Christian and Islamic kingdoms.[25] The first Portuguese raids (around 1336) in search of slaves and loot took place in the Canary Islands, inhabited by a pagan people of Berber origin, the Guanches, who resisted bravely.[8]
Strategic disruption of the Moorish slave trade
In the early 15th century, purchasing slaves primarily meant rescuing Christians enslaved by Muslim conquests.[26] The military activities of Islamic states were closely tied to the slave trade, and weakening slave traders was seen as a way to undermine Moorish conquerors' military power.[18] To break the Moorish monopoly on the slave trade, Portugal outlawed the enslavement of Christians and banned the trade of non-Christian slaves handled by Moorish traders. As part of its military strategy, Portugal encouraged its citizens and allied pagans to purchase slaves, aligning economic actions with efforts to weaken Muslim dominance.[27][18]
African slaves
The illegal Portuguese slave ship Diligenté with 600 slaves onboard, May 1838
The first expeditions of Sub-Saharan Africa were sent out by Prince Infante D. Henrique, known commonly today as Henry the Navigator, with the intent to probe how far the kingdoms of the Moors and their power reached.[28] The expeditions sent by Henry came back with black slaves as a way to compensate for the expenses of their voyages. The enslavement of black people was seen as a military campaign because the people that the Portuguese encountered were identified as Moorish and thus associated with Islam.[29] The royal chronicler Gomes Eanes de Zurara was never decided on the "Moorishness" of the slaves brought back from Africa, due to a seeming lack of contact with Islam. Slavery in Portugal and the number of slaves expanded after the Portuguese began an exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa.[30]
Prince Infante D. Henrique began selling African slaves in Lagos in 1444. In 1455, Pope Nicholas V gave Portugal the rights to continue the slave trade in West Africa, under the provision that they convert all people who are enslaved. The Portuguese soon expanded their trade along the whole west coast of Africa. Infante D Henrique held the monopoly on all expeditions to Africa granted by the crown until his death in 1460. Afterward, any ship sailing for Africa required authorization from the crown. All slaves and goods brought back to Portugal were subject to duties and tariffs.[31] Slaves were baptized before shipment. Their process of enslavement, which was viewed by critics as cruel, was justified by the conversion of the enslaved to Christianity.[32]
The high demand for slaves was due to a shortage of laborers in Portuguese colonies such as Brazil, Cape Verde, Angola and Mozambique. Records of both royal institutions responsible for the sale of black enslaved people, the Casa de Guiné and the Casa dos Escravos were damaged during the earthquake of 1755 in Lisbon, and the fiscal records containing the numbers and sales of these companies were destroyed. The records of the royal chronicler Zurara claim that 927 African slaves were brought to Portugal between 1441 and 1448.
Around 1500, there were thousands of African people in Iberia, the overwhelming majority of whom were slaves, at a time when African people were less common in other areas of Europe.[33] Because of Portugal's small population, Portuguese colonization of the new world was only possible with a large number of slaves they had acquired to be shipped overseas. In the late 15th and into the 16th centuries, the Portuguese economic reliance on slaves was less in question than the sheer number of slaves found in Portugal.[30] People wishing to purchase slaves in Portugal had two sources, the royal slaving company, the Casa da Guiné, or from slave merchants who had purchased their slaves through the Casa de Guiné to sell as retail. There were up to 70 slave merchants in Lisbon in the 1550s. Slave auctions occurred in the town or market square, or in the streets of central Lisbon. The sale of slaves was compared by observers as similar to the sale of horses or livestock. The laws of commerce regarding slavery address them as merchandise or objects. There was a period of time set upon purchase for the buyer to decide if he is happy with the slave he had purchased.[34]
The occupations of slaves varied widely. Some slaves in Lisbon could find themselves working in domestic settings, but most worked hard labor in the mines and metal forges, while others worked at the docks loading and maintaining ships. Some slaves worked peddling cheap goods at the markets and returning the profits to their masters. Opportunities for slaves were scarce and female slaves could be freed if their masters chose to marry them, but this was only common in the colonies. When Lisbon was on the verge of being invaded in 1580, slaves were promised their freedom in exchange for their military service. 440 slaves took the offer and most, after being freed, left Portugal. Slavery did little to alter society in Portugal, due to the slight ease of enslaved people's integration; those who did not assimilate were treated similarly to the poor with most being shipped to Brazil to work in the sugar cane plantation.[35]
Trans-Atlantic slave trade database
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database (TSTD), compiled over 40 years by historians Stephen Behrendt, David Eltis, David Richardson, and Manolo Florentino, is considered the most recent and reliable source for African slave trade statistics. Comprising data from 36,000 slave trade voyages, it covers over 80% of such voyages and is highly regarded in peer-reviewed academic journals for its rigorous research.[36]
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database (TSTD)[36][37]
After the Portuguese first made contact with Japan in 1543, a large-scale slave trade developed in the Nanban trade, one of the Portuguese trade includes the Portuguese purchase of Japanese that sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, the Nanban trade existed throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.[38][39][40][41] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to large proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[42][43] Records of three Japanese slaves dating from the 16th century, named Gaspar Fernandes, Miguel and Ventura who ended up in Mexico showed that they were purchased by Portuguese slave traders in Japan, brought to Manila from where they were shipped to Mexico by their owner Perez.[44]
More than several hundred Japanese, especially women, were sold as slaves.[45] Portuguese visitors so often engaged in slavery in Japan and occasionally South Asian and African crew members were taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas,[46] and India, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders in Goa by the early 17th century, many of whom became prostitutes.[47] Enslaved Japanese women were even occasionally sold as concubines to black African crew members, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[48][49][50][51][52] Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result.[53][self-published source][54] Historians have noted, however, that anti-Portuguese propaganda was actively promoted by the Japanese, particularly with regards to the Portuguese purchases of Japanese women for sexual purposes.[55]
Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea.[56][57] Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he himself was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan.[58][59] Chinese were bought in large numbers as slaves by the Portuguese in the 1520s.[60]Japanese Christian daimyos mainly responsible for selling to the Portuguese their fellow Japanese. Japanese women and Japanese men, Javanese, Chinese, and Indians were all sold as slaves in Portugal.[61]
Chinese
Some Chinese slaves in Spain ended up there after being brought to Lisbon, Portugal, and sold when they were boys. Tristán de la China was a Chinese who was taken as a slave by the Portuguese,[62] while he was still a boy and in the 1520s was obtained by Cristobál de Haro in Lisbon, and taken to live in Seville and Valladolid.[63] He was paid for his service as a translator in the 1525 Loaísa expedition,[64] during which he was still an adolescent.[65] The survivors, including Tristan, were shipwrecked for a decade until 1537 when they were brought back by a Portuguese ship to Lisbon.[66]
There are records of Chinese slaves in Lisbon as early as 1540.[67] According to modern historians, the first known visit of a Chinese person to Europe dates to 1540 (or soon after), when a Chinese scholar, apparently enslaved by Portuguese raiders somewhere on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[68]
In 16th-century southern Portugal there were Chinese slaves but the number of them was described as "negligible", being outnumbered by East Indian, Mourisco, and African slaves.[69] Amerindians, Chinese, Malays, and Indians were slaves in Portugal but in far fewer number than Turks, Berbers, and Arabs.[70] China and Malacca were origins of slaves delivered to Portugal by Portuguese viceroys.[71] A testament from 23 October 1562 recorded a Chinese man named António who was enslaved and owned by a Portuguese woman, Dona Maria de Vilhena, a wealthy noblewoman in Évora.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][excessive citations] António was among the three most common male names given to male slaves in Évora.[86] D. Maria owned one of the only two Chinese slaves in Évora and she specifically selected and used him from among the slaves she owned to drive her mules for her because he was Chinese since rigorous and demanding tasks were assigned to Mourisco, Chinese, and Indian slaves.[87] D. Maria's owning a Chinese, three Indians, and three Mouriscos among her fifteen slaves reflected on her high social status, since Chinese, Mouriscos, and Indians were among the ethnicities of prized slaves and were very expensive compared to blacks, so high class individuals owned these ethnicities and it was because her former husband Simão was involved in the slave trade in the east that she owned slaves of many different ethnicities.[88] When she died, D. Maria freed twelve of her slaves including this Chinese man in her testament, leaving them with sums from 20,000 to 10,000 réis in money.[89][90] D. Maria de Vilhena was the daughter of the nobleman and explorer Sancho de Tovar, the capitão of Sofala (List of colonial governors of Mozambique), and she was married twice, the first marriage to the explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça, and her second marriage was to Simão da Silveira, capitão of Diu (Lista de governadores, capitães e castelões de Diu).[91][92][93] D. Maria was left a widow by Simão,[94] and she was a major slave owner, possessing the most slaves in Évora, with her testament recording fifteen slaves.[95]
A legal case was brought before the Spanish Council of the Indies in the 1570s, involving two Chinese men in Seville, one of them a freeman, Esteban Cabrera, and the other a slave, Diego Indio, against Juan de Morales, Diego's owner. Diego called on Esteban to give evidence as a witness on his behalf.[96][62] Diego recalled that he was taken as a slave by Francisco de Casteñeda from Mexico, to Nicaragua, then to Lima in Peru, then to Panama, and eventually to Spain via Lisbon, while he was still a boy.[97][98][99][100]
Chinese boys were kidnapped from Macau and sold as slaves in Lisbon while they were still children.[101]Brazil imported some of Lisbon's Chinese slaves.[102] Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were blacks.[103] Brazil and Portugal were both recipients of Chinese slaves bought by Portuguese.[104] Portugal exported to Brazil some Chinese slaves. Military, religious, and civil service secretarial work and other lenient and light jobs were given to Chinese slaves while hard labor was given to Africans. Only African slaves in 1578 Lisbon outnumbered the large numbers of Japanese and Chinese slaves in the same city.[105] Some of the Chinese slaves were sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony.[106][107] Cooking was the main profession of Chinese slaves around 1580 in Lisbon, according to Fillippo Sassetti from Florence and the Portuguese viewed them as diligent, smart, and "loyal".[108][109][110]
The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner[111][112] The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese slaves.[113] Traits such as high intelligence were ascribed to Chinese, Indian, and Japanese slaves.[114][115][116]
In 1595, a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves[117] due to hostility from the Chinese and Japanese regarding the trafficking in Japanese and Chinese slaves[118] On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese people of either sex.[119][120]
Others
A Portuguese woman, Dona Ana de Ataíde owned an Indian man named António as a slave in Évora.[121] He served as a cook for her.[122] Ana de Ataíde's Indian slave escaped from her in 1587.[123] A large number of slaves were forcibly brought there since the commercial, artisanal, and service sectors all flourished in a regional capital like Évora.[123]
A fugitive Indian slave from Evora named António went to Badajoz after leaving his master in 1545.[124]
Portuguese domination was accepted by the "docile" Jau slaves. In Évora, Brites Figueira owned a Javanese (Jau) slave named Maria Jau. Antão Azedo took an Indian slave named Heitor to Evora, who along with another slave was from Bengal were among the 34 Indian slaves in total who were owned by Tristão Homem, a nobleman in 1544 in Évora. Manuel Gomes previously owned a slave who escaped in 1558 at age 18 and he was said to be from the "land of Prester John of the Indias" named Diogo.[125]
In Évora, men were owned and used as slaves by female establishments like convents for nuns. Three male slaves and three female slaves were given to the nuns of Montemor by the alcaide-mor's widow. In order to "serve those who serve God" and being told to obey orders "in all things that they ordered them", a boy named Manual along with his slave mother were given to the Nuns of Montemor by father Jorge Fernandes in 1544.[126] A capelão do rei, father João Pinto left an Indian man in Porto, where he was picked up in 1546 by the Évora-based Santa Marta convent's nuns to serve as their slave. However, female slaves did not serve in male establishments, unlike vice versa.[127]
Beginning in the 16th century, the Portuguese tried to establish trading ports and settlements along the coast of China. Early attempts at establishing such bases, such as those in Ningbo and Quanzhou, were however destroyed by the Chinese, following violent raids by the settlers to neighboring ports, which included pillaging and plunder and sometimes enslavement.[128][129][130][131][132] The resulting complaints made it to the province's governor who commanded the settlement destroyed and the inhabitants wiped out. In 1545, a force of 60,000 Chinese troops descended on the community, and 800 of the 1,200 Portuguese residents were massacred, with 25 vessels and 42 junks destroyed.[133][134][135][136]
Until the mid-17th century, during the early Portuguese mandate of Macau, some 5,000 slaves lived in the territory, in addition to 2,000 Portuguese and an ever-growing number of Chinese, which in 1664 reached 20,000.[137][138] This number decreased in the following decades to between 1000 and 2000.[139] Most of the slaves were of African origin.[137][140] Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese, initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese/Sinhalese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indochinese, Malay (from Malacca), and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[141][142][143][144] Slave women of Indian, Indonesian, Malay, and Japanese origin were used as partners by Portuguese men.[145] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[146] From 1555 onwards Macau received slave women of Timorese origin as well as women of African origin, and from Malacca and India.[147][148] Macau was permitted by Pombal to receive an influx of Timorese women.[149]Macau received an influx of African slaves, Japanese slaves as well as Christian Korean slaves who were bought by the Portuguese from the Japanese after they were taken prisoner during the Japanese invasions of Korea in the era of Hideyoshi.[150]
On 24 June 1622, the Dutch attacked Macau in the Battle of Macau, expecting to turn the area into a Dutch possession, with an 800-strong invasion force led by under Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon. The relatively small number of defenders repulsed the Dutch attack, which was not repeated. The majority of the defenders were Africans slaves, with only a few dozen Portuguese soldiers and priests in support, and they accounted for most of the victims in the battle.[151][152][153][154] Following the defeat, the Dutch Governor Jan Coen said of the Macao slaves, that "it was they who defeated and drove away our people there".[155][156][157][158] In China during the 19th century, the British consul to China noted that some Portuguese merchants were still buying children between five and eight years of age.[159][160][161]
In 1814, the Jiaqing Emperor added a clause to the section of the fundamental laws of China titled "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited", later modified in 1821 and published in 1826 by the Daoguang Emperor, which sentenced Europeans, namely Portuguese Christians who would not repent their conversion, to be sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang as slaves to Muslim leaders.[162]
Treatment
Black Slaves in the Early Modern Era
Employment and living conditions
Except for the very poorest members of society all classes of people in early modern Portugal, from kings to prostitutes, were known to own slaves[163]. Slaves worked as domestic servants, labourers and artisans, with some employed on ships and in agriculture.[164][165] As such their lives might not have been dissimilar to those of white lower classes at the time who were subject to the same laws and moral standards and many were also dependent on a master for food, clothes and lodging, moreover a master had a right of corporal punishment over anyone in his household: slave or free.[166]
Slaves in Portugal wore European clothing, both to cope with the sometimes harsh winters and because it was seen as a necessity by the Portuguese to uphold the standards of a "proper Christian life".[167] The clothing worn was dictated by the form of employment as was comparable to that worked by white Portuguese in similar work.[168] Those who worked as servants might be provided with bright, high quality clothing: the employment of liviered servants became a commonplace practice in Europe from the Medieval era onwards[169][170] such practices were seen not only as a form of 'conspicuous consumption' that reflected the status, and social position of the employer[171] but also served as means to reinforce and distinguish members of the social hierarchy.[170][172] Not all slaves were as lucky, sometimes slaves reduced to begging, or theft, in order to obtain food and clothing [173] (as also evidenced by a law of 1538 that forbade slaves to beg).[174]
What ultimately distinguished slaves from free servants was their status of slaves: others might be equally as dependent on a master but were free to leave their employment. Under laws slaves were their masters possessions for life, unless freed or sold. This "meant that their bodies were far more under their masters' control, and more open to physical and sexual abuse than those of free servants".[175] It was this, alongside cultural practices and speech patterns that revealed traces of their African origins, as well as the obvious marker of skin colour, that marked them out as a distinct community from the white Portuguese lower classes.[176]
Religion
Though Christianity proved the legal and moral justification of the slave trade [177] the Church remained largely unconcerned with the spiritual welfare of slaves until the Council of Trent.[178] Attempts to convert slaves did not take place until 70 years after they first arrived in Portugal and as late as 1493 the Portuguese king, Joao II, owned unbaptised slaves [179].
In 1593 King D. Manuel wrote to Pope Leo X expressing his distress that many of the slaves brought to Lisbon died before they were baptised. How sincere he was is doubted, his concern might have been primarily driven by a need to demonstrate piety so that the pope would grant him increased control over the church[180]. The effectiveness of the measures he undertook is also in doubt since in 1553 the royal secretary was complaining of the large numbers of slaves sold in Lisbon who died before being baptised.[181].
Conversion of slaves resident in Portugal may have had better results. D. Manuel issued an order, in 1514, that their masters had to ensure that their masters had to ensure that all adult slaves had to be baptised within six months of landing. However slaves over 10 years could refuse baptism. Children under 10 had to be baptised within 1 month of landing and infants were to be baptised at the same time as other children of the parish. Doubts exist as to how well this was enforced since the Archbishop of Lisbon, in 1568, ordered all masters to baptise slave children over the age of seven. It is clear though that many accepted and even embraced Christianity, taking part in religious ceremonies, forming lay orders an even taking holy orders.[182] Black slaves also showed up in confirmation records as adults.[183] This belief could form a path to cultural assimilation though contemporary reports indicate that the religious practices of slaves contained aspects of their African heritage. In 1633 a Capuchin friar described a religious celebration where participants were dressed in African clothing and processed to the sound of African Instruments.[184].
Religious fraternities played an important part in black lives, though there were limits on how slaves, compared to free blacks, could join. They provided a means of mutual support and self-governance and were recognised as representing their communities.[185] Though often lacking in funds, religious fraternities were known to seek manumission for their members.[186]
Punishment and legal status
During transport to Portugal, enslaved people were fastened and chained with manacles, padlocks, and rings around their necks.[187] Portuguese owners could whip, chain, and pour burning hot wax and fat onto the skin of their slaves, and punish their slaves in any way that they wished, as long as the slaves remained alive. The Portuguese also used branding irons to brand their slaves as property.
There is little evidence on how (black) slaves were treated and punished, including rape and sexual abuse, except in as much can be drawn from comparing birth records (which do not record the name of the father) and the rise marriages among slaves after the Council of Trent, though contemporary observers generally agreed that black slaves were treated better than Moors.[188]
Under Portuguese laws slaves where considered chattel, i.e. personal property and could thus be sold, pawned or used for a ransom or security for a debt.[189] The law did grant slaves the right to life, unless condemned to death in law. This corresponded to popular belief though there in no evidence that anyone was ever executed for killing a slave. Care must be taken in interpreting this since was a form of discrimination common to all the lower classes.[190]
Portuguese custom recognised manumission i.e. the freeing of a slave.[191] This was undertaken by the legal instrument of a carta de alforria, or letter of manumission. Slave could be freed by their master during the masters lifetime or in his will. Manumission could also be achieved through purchase with a slave's masters consent, typically for the slaves market value.[192] Slaves were sometimes left sums of money in order to effect this, otherwise they could pay for this themselves, though slaves were able to obtain money through trading, obtaining enough money would take many years.[193]
Banning
The Marquis of Pombal (pictured), who forbade the importation of African slaves to Portugal and Portuguese India in 1761
Voices condemning the slave trade were raised early during the Atlantic Slave Trade period. Among them was Gaspar da Cruz, a Dominican friar who dismissed any arguments by the slave traffickers that they had "legally" purchased already-enslaved children, among the earliest condemnations of slavery in Europe during this period.[194]
From an early age during the Atlantic Slave Trade period, the crown attempted to stop the trading of non-African slaves. The enslavement and overseas trading of Chinese slaves, who the Portuguese prized,[112] was specifically addressed in response to Chinese authorities' requests, who, although not against the enslavement of people in Macau and Chinese territories, which was common practice,[195] at different times attempted to stop the transport of slaves outside the territory.[196] In 1595, a Portuguese royal decree banned the selling and buying of ethnically Chinese slaves; it was reiterated by the Portuguese king on 19 February 1624,[102][195][197] and, in 1744, by the Qianlong Emperor, who forbade the practice to Chinese subjects, reiterating his order in 1750.[198][199] However, these laws were not able to stop the trade completely, a practice which lasted until the 1700s.[102] In the American colonies, Portugal halted the use of Chinese, Japanese, Europeans, and Indians to work as slaves for sugar plantations,[when?] which was reserved exclusively for African slaves.[citation needed]
In 1761, the Marquis of Pombal banned the importation of African slaves to Portugal and Portuguese India; this however was not intended as an anti-slavery measure, but to ensure the slaves went to Brazil instead.[200][201] Portugal abolished its involvement in the Atlantic slave trade in 1836, primarily due to Brazil becoming independent and British diplomatic pressure. Finally, in 1869, slavery was abolished for good in the Portuguese Empire.
↑Caldeira, Arlindo Manuel (2013). Escravos e Traficantes no Império Português: O comércio negreiro português no Atlântico durante os séculos XV a XIX (in Portuguese). A Esfera dos Livros. pp.219–224.
↑Boxer, Charles R. (1977). The Portuguese seaborne empire, 1415-1825. London: Hutchinson. pp.177–180. ISBN978-0-09-131071-4. OL18936702M.
↑Perez-Camacho, Jonas (2019). Guanches: Legend and reality (5thed.). Weston. p.82. ISBN978-84-616-1089-1.
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12Thornton, John (1998). Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nded.). Cambridge University Press. pp.28–29.
↑Disney, Anthony R. (2009). A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire From Beginnings to 1807. Vol.2: The Portuguese Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp.99–100.
↑Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 126
↑"Ransoming Captives, Chapter One". libro.uca.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2019. Brodman, J. (1986). Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier. USA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
↑Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. (2017). Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 139
↑Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 70, "In the Iberian Peninsula, the relation of just war to slavery was a process mediated by the constant history of violent clashes during the Reconquista. The doctrine of just war became a necessary political tool for the maintenance of the war against Muslims. Henrique Quinta-Nova wrote that the doctrine represented not only an opposition against Islamic values, but also a great ethic justification for the continuous war that absorbed political dynamics199."
123Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp.132-133, "Slave trading had very real consequences in terms of military power and capability – more slaves meant more manpower in conflicts. Given the long history up to the 1560s of battles between Muslims and Christians in Asia, unsurprisingly the clergymen at the Council were also concerned about the issue of military power derived from the slave trade. Reaching beyond slave trading networks which nodes ended in Portuguese ports, prelates wished to use the maritime jurisdiction exerted by the Portuguese crown to curtail slave traders who fed markets in adversary areas, namely Muslim ports. Effectively, this decree requests a change of policies in relation to foreign ships navigating in Portuguese-controlled waters, requiring that slaves should not be sent to Muslim areas. "
↑Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 76-77, "In the Guimarães Courts, held in 1401, D. João listens to farmers who complain that, because of labor shortage, they could lose their vineyards and crops, and those few servants they already had were constantly lured by others to leave their masters in exchange for better wages...By the turn of the century, the crisis regarding labor and the need of manpower for sugarcane plantations in Southern Portugal became a factor behind the first period of Portuguese maritime expansion. 219 Since the beginning of the 1400s, sugar had become an important piece of the regional economy, and since the 1440s the Atlantic islands were also included in this industry. Slavery was then the best alternative to supply these crops with labor, thus in 1441 the first ship with captives from the Saharan seacoast arrived.220 With Muslim captives from the wars in Africa arriving in Portugal, the legislation started."
↑Blumenthal D. Slavery in Medieval Iberia. In: Perry C, Eltis D, Engerman SL, Richardson D, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press; 2021, p. 515, "But as we move into the late eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries (the Almoravid and Almohad periods), we see a notable increase in the number of slaves from the "Sudan" or non-Islamized regions of sub-Saharan West Africa being imported into the Muslim-controlled territories in the Iberian Peninsula. Many of these sub-Saharan West African slaves seem to have been employed as slave soldiers and formed separate African infantry units."
↑Blumenthal D. Slavery in Medieval Iberia. In: Perry C, Eltis D, Engerman SL, Richardson D, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press; 2021, p. 516, "In his fourteenth-century work, the Muqaddimah, the North African Berber historian, Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), offered an even more explicitly "racial" justification for the practice, affirming that "the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery because [Negroes] have little [that is essentially] human and have attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."13"
↑Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 71, "José Luis Cortés Lopez writes: [In Spain, the Muslim presence had originated a series of violent clashes with Christian kingdoms, where the figure of the 'captive' as the most appreciated spoil by them. This new character by the fact of having been captured in a warlike situation, or considered as such, lose all his individuality and autonomy, thus becoming property of who captured him, so that if he wished he could give him back his freedom by freewill or via a ransom. The captive was, then, strange or foreign person reduced to a state of submission by violent acts, but in no way they were being subjected 'by nature' to perpetual slavery, as Aristotle wished to make of some members of society]"
↑An Economic History of Portugal, 1143–2010, Leonor Freire Costa, Universidade de Lisboa, Pedro Lains, Universidade de Lisboa, Susana Münch Miranda, Universiteit Leiden, Cambridge University Press, 2016, p. 27, "In the case of Portugal, the shift to peasant tenure can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. As the Reconquista brought new lands to be ploughed and since there were no restrictions to peasant mobility, the high land–labor ratio of a frontier economy was not exclusive to the southern part of the kingdom.9 Hence, as labor was scarce relative to land, slavery and serfdom were already waning in the thirteenth century."
↑Robin Churchill, Portugal and the Development of the Law of the Sea in Western Europe, Portuguese Yearbook of the Law of the Sea 1 (2024) 12–25, p. 15, "Beginning with the capture from the Muslims of the town of Ceuta, situated at the northern tip of Morocco, in 1415, the Portuguese gradually worked their way southwards along the Atlantic seaboard of Africa."
↑Saunders, A. (2010). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal. Cambridge University Press. p.5. ISBN978-0-521-13003-5.
↑Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 70 "In the 1400s and 1500s, the favored term for buying a slave was resgatar – to rescue, in a clear reference to the rescue of captives victims of the war between Christianity and Islam201 . Although the language of war in the discourse of slavery, which would be used to equate captive to slave, was not immediately adopted in fifteenth century Iberia, the sixteenth century would be marked by a continuous indistinctness between the two words202."
↑Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 156, "The Vice-Roy confirms that, from that point on, all licenses should forbid non-Christian (the law specifically mentions Moors) merchants to carry non-Christian slaves. All those who do so should sell these slaves in Portuguese fortresses to Christian buyers. If these Christians could not buy the slaves, then non-Christians subjected to the Portuguese crown could buy them. It also stipulated a fine of 10 pardaos for transgressors. It also forbade infidel vassals to the Portuguese king to sell slaves to other areas controlled by non-Christian rulers, instead demanding that the slaves should be sold to Christians487."
↑de Zurara, Gomes Eanes; Beazley, Charles Raymond; Prestage, Edgar (2010), "Azurara's Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea", The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, Cambridge University Press, pp.28–29, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511709241.003, ISBN978-0-511-70924-1
↑Wolf, Kenneth B. (Fall 1994). "The 'Moors" of West Africa and the beginnings of the Portuguese slave trade". Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 24: 457–459.
12Magalhaes, J.R. (1997). "Africans, Indians, and Slavery in Portugal". Portuguese Studies. 13: 143.
↑Saunders, A. (2010). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal. pp.4–7.
↑Magalhaes, J.R. (1997). "Africans, Indians, and Slavery in Portugal". Portuguese Studies. 13: 143–147.
↑Blackburn, Robin (Jan 1997). "The Old World Background to European Colonial Slavery". The William and Mary Quarterly. 54 (1): 98. doi:10.2307/2953313. JSTOR2953313.
↑Saunders, A. (2010). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal. pp.17–18.
↑Magalhaes, J.R. (1997). "Africans, Indians, and Slavery in Portugal". Portuguese Studies. 13: 143–151.
12Elits, David. "The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database: Origins, Development, Content." Journal of Slavery and Data Preservation 2, no. 3 (2021): 1-8. https://doi.org/10.25971/R9H6-QX59., "Historians, economists, literary scholars, sociologists, anthropologists, political scientists, religious studies scholars, and musicologists have all cited TSTD. In the words of a recent paper in the peer-reviewed journal Rationality and Society, "Nearly all historical assessments of the trade written after the database's release have used this quantitative data, and its reliability is well established in the literature."
↑Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. JSTOR25066328.
↑"Monumenta Nipponica". Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present. Vol.59, no.3, 4. Sophia University. 2004. p.463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑"Monumenta Nipponica". Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present. Vol.59, no.3, 4. Sophia University. 2004. p.463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Alberto da Costa e Silva (2014). "25 Escravo ugual a negro". A manilha e o libambo: A África e a escravidão, de 1500 a 1700 (2ed.). Nova Fronteira. ISBN978-85-209-3949-9. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Fonseca 1997, p.21 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFonseca1997 (help): "e o chinês, também António, ainda há pouco referido e que era condutor das azémolas de D. Maria de Vilhena"
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.21. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.30. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.31. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.24. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.21. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.21. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.117. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Cristovão Alão de Morais; Eugénio de Andrea da Cunha e Freitas (1699). Alexandre António Pereira de Miranda Vasconcellos; António Cruz (eds.). Pedatura lusitana (nobiliário de famílias de Portugal) ... (in Portuguese). Vol.2. Livraria Fernando Machado. p.276. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Cristovão Alão de Morais; Eugénio de Andrea da Cunha e Freitas (1673). Alexandre António Pereira de Miranda Vasconcellos; António Cruz (eds.). Pedatura lusitana (nobiliário de famílias de Portugal) ... (in Portuguese). Vol.4. Livraria Fernando Machado. p.463. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.41. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.18. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (1984). José Jesús Hernández Palomo; Bibiano Torres Ramírez (eds.). Andalucia y America en el Siglo Xvi. Vol.292 of Publicaciones de la Escuela de estudios hispano-americanos de Sevilla (illustrateded.). Editorial CSIC – CSIC Press. p.553. ISBN978-84-00-05664-3. ISSN0210-5802. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p.19. ISBN978-85-268-0436-4.
123Teixeira Leite 1999, p.20 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTeixeira_Leite1999 (help): "Já por aí se vê que devem ter sido numerosos os escravos chineses que tomaram o caminho de Lisboa – e por extensão o do Brasil... Em 1744 era o imperador Qianlong quem ordenava que nenhum Chinês ou europeu de Macau vendesse filhos e filhas, prohibição reiterada em 1750 pelo vice-rei de Cantão."
↑Jonathan D. Spence (1985). The memory palace of Matteo Ricci (illustrated, reprinted.). Penguin Books. p.208. ISBN978-0-14-008098-8. Retrieved 2012-05-05. countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese
↑José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p.19. ISBN978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 2012-05-05. Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares.
↑Jeanette Pinto (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Himalaya Pub. House. p.18. ISBN978-81-7040-587-0. Retrieved 2012-05-05. ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working'... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks.
↑Charles Ralph Boxer (1968). Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770 (2, illustrated, reprinted.). 2, illustrated, reprint. p.225. ISBN978-0-19-638074-2. Retrieved 2012-05-05. be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting...
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção 'Novos estudos eborenses' Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.21. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
12Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção 'Novos estudos eborenses' Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.31. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.103. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção 'Novos estudos eborenses' Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.21. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção 'Novos estudos eborenses' Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.45. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol.2 of Colecção 'Novos estudos eborenses' Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p.45. ISBN978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Ernest S. Dodge (1976). Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia. Vol.7 of Europe and the World in Age of Expansion. U of Minnesota Press. p.226. ISBN978-0-8166-0853-9. Retrieved 18 October 2011. The Portuguese, who considered all Eastern peoples legitimate prey, established trading settlements at Ningpo and in Fukien, but both were wiped out by massacres in 1545 and 1549. For some years the Portuguese were second only to the
↑Kenneth Scott Latourette (1964). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2 (4, reprinted.). Macmillan. p.235. Retrieved 18 July 2011. A settlement which the Portuguese established near Ningpo was wiped out by a massacre (1545), and a similar fate overtook a trading colony in Fukien (1549). For a time the Portuguese retained a precarious tenure only on islands south of Canton (the University of Michigan)
↑Kenneth Scott Latourette (1942). The Chinese, their history and culture, Volumes 1-2 (2ed.). Macmillan. p.313. Retrieved 18 July 2011. A settlement which the Portuguese established near Ningpo was wiped out by a massacre (1545), and a similar fate overtook a trading colony in Fukien (1549). For a time the Portuguese retained a precarious tenure only on islands south of Canton(the University of Michigan)
↑John William Parry (1969). Spices: The story of spices. The spices described. Vol.1 of Spices. Chemical Pub. Co. p.102. Retrieved 18 July 2011. The Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settlement near Ningpo which was wiped out by massacre in 1545; another Portuguese settlement in Fukien province met a similar fate in 1549, but they finally succeeded in establishing a (the University of California)
↑Witold Rodziński (1983). A history of China, Volume 1 (illustrateded.). Pergamon Press. p.203. ISBN978-0-08-021806-9. Retrieved 18 July 2011. A further attempt was made by the Portuguese in 1 522 by Affonso de Mello Coutinho which also suffered defeat. In spite of these initial setbacks the Portuguese succeeded, probably by bribing local officials, in establishing themselves in Ningpo (Chekiang) and in Ch'uanchou (Fukien), where considerable trade with the Chinese was developed. In both cases, however, the unspeakably brutal behaviours of the Portuguese caused a revulsion of Chinese feeling against the newcomers. In 1545 the Portuguese colony in Ningpo was completely wiped out after three years of existence and later, in 1549, the same fate met the settlement in Ch'iianchou. Somewhat later, the Portuguese did succeed finally in gaining(the University of Michigan)
↑A.J. Johnson Company (1895). Charles Kendall Adams (ed.). Johnson's universal cyclopedia: a new edition. Vol.6 of Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia. New York: D. Appleton, A.J. Johnson. p.202. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the University of California)
↑Charles Kendall Adams; Rossiter Johnson (1902). Universal cyclopaedia and atlas, Volume 8. NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Company. p.490. Retrieved 18 July 2011.(Original from the New York Public Library)
↑Stephen Adolphe Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tryon (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. Walter de Gruyter. p.323. ISBN978-3-11-013417-9. Retrieved 4 November 2011. The Portuguese population of Macao was never very large. Between the period 1601–1669, a typical cross section of the population consisted of about 600 casados, 100–200 other Portuguese, some 5000 slaves and a growing number of Chinese
↑Zhidong Hao (2011). Macau History and Society (illustrateded.). Hong Kong University Press. p.63. ISBN978-988-8028-54-2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. This is a time when there were most African slaves, about 5100. In comparison there were about 1000 to 2000 during the later Portuguese rule in Macau.
↑Trevor Burnard (2010). Gad Heuman; Trevor Burnard (eds.). The Routledge history of slavery (illustrateded.). Taylor & Francis. p.57. ISBN978-0-415-46689-9. Retrieved 4 November 2011. South Asia also exported bondspeople: Indians, for example, were exported as slaves to Macao, Japan, Indonesia
↑João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Vol.74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrateded.). Berg. p.39. ISBN978-0-8264-5749-3. Retrieved 2012-03-01. To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men.... but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
↑C.A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p.41. Retrieved 2014-02-02. macao Japanese women.
↑Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Vol.1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p.44. ISBN978-962-209-077-4. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Vol.1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p.29. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
↑Indrani Chatterjee; Richard Maxwell Eaton (2006). Indrani Chatterjee; Richard Maxwell Eaton (eds.). Slavery and South Asian history (illustrateded.). Indiana University Press. p.238. ISBN978-0-253-21873-5. Retrieved 4 November 2011. Portuguese, "he concluded; " The Portuguese beat us off from Macao with their slaves." 10 The same year as the Dutch ... an English witness recorded that the Portuguese defense was conducted primarily by their African slaves, who threw
↑Middle East and Africa. Taylor & Francis. 1996. p.544. ISBN978-1-884964-04-6. Retrieved 4 November 2011. A miscellaneous assemblage of Portuguese soldiers, citizens, African slaves, friars, and Jesuits managed to withstand the attack. Following this defeat, the Dutch made no further attempts to take Macau, although they continued to harass
↑Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus (illustrateded.). Hong Kong University Press. p.159. ISBN978-962-209-486-4. Retrieved 4 November 2011. invaded Macau on 24 June 1622 but was defeated by a handful of Portuguese priests, citizens and African slaves
↑Steven Bailey (2007). Strolling in Macau: A Visitor's Guide to Macau, Taipa, and Coloane (illustrateded.). ThingsAsian Press. p.15. ISBN978-0-9715940-9-8. Retrieved 4 November 2011. On June 24, 1622, a Dutch fleet under Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon assembled a landing force of some 800 armed sailors, a number thought more than sufficient to overpower Macau's relatively weak garrison. Macau's future as a Dutch colony seemed all but assured, since the city's ... still remained under construction and its defenders numbered only about 60 soldiers and 90 civilians, who ranged from Jesuit priests to African slaves
↑Ruth Simms Hamilton, ed. (2007). Routes of passage: rethinking the African diaspora, Volume 1, Part 1. Vol.1 of African diaspora research. Michigan State University Press. p.143. ISBN978-0-87013-632-0. Retrieved 4 November 2011. Jan Coen, who had been sent to establish a Dutch base on the China coast, wrote about the slaves who served the Portuguese so faithfully: "It was they who defeated and drove away our people last year."(the University of California)
↑Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos (1968). Studia, Issue 23. Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos. p.89. Retrieved 4 November 2011. 85, quotes a report from the Dutch governor-general, Coen, in 1623: «The slaves of the Portuguese at Macao served them so well and faithfully, that it was they who defeated and drove away our people last year».(University of Texas)
↑Charles Ralph Boxer (1968). Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770 (2, illustrated, reprinted.). Oxford U.P. p.85. ISBN978-0-19-638074-2. Retrieved 4 November 2011. The enemy, it was reported, 'had lost many more men than we, albeit mostly slaves. Our people saw very few Portuguese'. A year later he was still harping on the same theme. 'The slaves of the Portuguese at Macao served them so well and faithfully, that it was they who defeated and drove away our people there last'(the University of Michigan)
↑P. D. Coates (1988). The China consuls: British consular officers, 1843–1943 (2, illustrateded.). Oxford University Press. p.124. ISBN978-0-19-584078-0. Retrieved 4 November 2011. a Portuguese slave trade in male and female children aged between 5 and 8, whom Portuguese bought for $3 to $4(the University of Michigan)
↑Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999). Macau: a cultural Janus (illustrateded.). Hong Kong University Press. p.159. ISBN978-962-209-486-4. Retrieved 4 November 2011. Apart from being a centre of coolie-slave trade, Macau was also known as the Oriental Monte Carlo
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.62. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.2. ISBN0521231507.
↑Northrup, David (2002). Africa's Discovery of Europe 1450-1850. New York: Oxford University Press. p.8.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.89. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.92. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.95. ISBN0521231507.
↑Scott, Margaret (2018). Fashion in the Middle Ages. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. pp.81–82. ISBN978-1-60606-585-3.
12Riello, Giorgio (2020). Back in Fashion: Western Fashion from the Middle Ages to the Present. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. p.12. ISBN978-0-300-218848.
↑Hunt, Alan (1996). Governance of the Consuming Passions: A History of Sumptary Law. New York: St Martin's Press. p.50. ISBN0-312-12922-X.
↑Hunt, Alan (1996). Governance of the Consuming Passions: A History of Sumptary Law. New York: St Martin's Press. pp.84, 197. ISBN0-312-12922-X..
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.111. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.97. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.89. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.97–98. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.35–40. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.149. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.149. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.41. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.42. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.111. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.150. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.150. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.151–154. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.155–156. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.111. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.115. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.115. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.115. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.138. ISBN0521231507.
↑Saunders, A. (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.139–140. ISBN0521231507.
12de Pina-Cabral 2002, pp.114–115 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFde_Pina-Cabral2002 (help): "From very early on, it was recognized that the purchase of Chinese persons (particularly female infants) caused no particular problems in Macao, but that the export of these people as slaves was contrary to the safeguarding of peaceable relations with the Chinese authorities. This point is clearly made by a Royal Decree of 1624 ... [t]hese good intentions were, however, difficult to uphold in the territory where the monetary purchase of persons was easily accomplished and the supply very abundant, particularly of young females."
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