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For most of its history, Qatar practiced slavery until its abolition in 1952. Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves. Chattel slavery was succeeded by the Kafala system. The kafala system has been abolished in Qatar since December 2016. However, concerns still remain about workers' rights and employers retaining considerable power over workers. [1] [2]
During the Omani Empire (1692–1856), Oman was a center of the Zanzibar slave trade. Slaves were trafficked from the Swahili coast of East Africa via Zanzibar to Oman. From Oman, the slaves were exported to the rest of the Arabian Peninsula and Persia, including the Trucial States, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait. Oman's optimal location between the Arabian Sea and the Gulf region positioned it as a key player in the Zanzibar slave trade. Serving as a pivotal navigation point, Oman gained significant importance in the history of the Arabian Gulf region. The economic impact of the slave trade persisted, becoming a substantial factor in shaping Oman's economy in the post-slave trade era. [3]
The Omani slave trade from Africa started to shrink in the late 19th century.
A second route of slave trade existed, with people from both Africa and East Asia, who were smuggled to Jeddah in the Arabian Peninsula in connection to the Muslim pilgrimage, Hajj , to Mecca and Medina. Victims were tricked to perform the journey willingly in the belief that they were going on the Hajj pilgrimage, or employed as servants, and then sold upon arrival. These slaves were then exported from the Hejaz to Oman, the Trucial States, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait.
In the 1940s, a third slave trade route was noted, in which Balochis from Balochistan were shipped across the Persian Gulf, many of whom had sold themselves or their children to escape poverty. [4] In 1943, it was reported that Baloch girls were shipped via Oman and the Trucial States to Mecca, where they were popular as concubines (sex slaves), since Caucasian girls were no longer available, and were sold for $350–450. [5]
Slavery was practiced by the House of Thani and the wealthy merchants, but also by ordinary villagers, who could own only one or two slaves. [6]
Female slaves were primarily used as either domestic servants, or as concubines (sex slaves). [7] The PDQ Oil Company had 250 slave laborers during its first year of production in Qatar in 1949. [6]
Black African women were primarily used as domestic house slaves rather than exclusively for sexual services, while white Caucasian women (normally Circassian or Georgian) were preferred as concubines (sex slaves), and when the main slave route of white slave girls was reduced after Russia's conquest of the Caucasus and Central Asia in the mid 19th-century (reducing the Black Sea slave trade and the Kazakh Khanate slave trade), Baluchi and "Red" Ethiopian (Oromo and Sidamo) women became the preferred targets for sexual slavery. [8] Non-African female slaves were sold in the Persian Gulf where they were bought for marriage; these were fewer and often Armenian, Georgian, or from Baluchistan and India. [9]
Female slaves were often used for sexual services as concubines for a period of time, and then sold or married off to other slaves; the slave owners would arranged both marriages and divorce for their slaves, and the offspring of two slaves would become slaves in turn. [10] It was common for slave owners to claim sexual services of married female slaves when the slave husband was away for long periods of time, to hunt for pearls or fish or similar labor, and sexual abuse was a common reason given when female slaves applied for manumission at the British Agency. [10]
During the flourishing period of the late seventeenth to early eighteenth century, male slaves played a pivotal role in the burgeoning pearl industry of Qatar, particularly as pearl divers. The thriving pearl diving sector not only led to the establishment of coastal settlements but also triggered significant migration to Qatar. Subsequently, the nation witnessed a substantial economic upturn attributed to the prosperity of the pearl fishing industry. This economic boom facilitated Qatar's integration into the global economy and marked the initiation of globalization in the region. Predominantly of African descent, these slaves, constituting approximately a quarter to a third of Qatar's population, were prominently engaged in the cultivation and exploitation of pearls and used in a number of other tasks: as soldiers, farm labourers, cash crop workers, maritime sailors, dock workers, porters, irrigation canal workers, fishermen, and domestic servants. [11] [12]
It was common for Arab men to use the sexual services of enslaved African women, but a male African slave who had sexual relations with a local "pure blood" Arab woman would be executed to preserve tribal honor and social status, regardless if the couple had married or not. [13]
The British Empire gained control of Qatar in the 1890s and signed the 1926 Slavery Convention to fight enslavement in all land under their control. However, they doubted their ability to stop Qataris from continuing slavery, so the British policy was therefore to assure the League of Nations that Qatar followed the same anti-slavery treaties signed by the British and prevent observation of the area that could disprove the claims. [14] In the 1940s, there were several suggestions made by the British to combat the slave trade and the slavery in the region, but none was considered enforceable on the Qataris.
According to British policy, if a slave escaped and applied for manumission in one of its Political Agencies, they were eligible to receive a manumission certificate. Granting such certificates also served as a non-recognition of the legitimacy of slavery by the British government. [15] As the British have not established a Political Agency in Qatar until 1949, slaves seeking manumission were compelled to escape and often travel to Bahrain to apply for a certificate. Archived files from the India Office contain hundreds of slave manumission statements, which were typically generated following an interview process conducted by the staff at the relevant Political Agency.
The number of female slaves in the Gulf was as high or higher than that of male slaves, but the number of female slaves who made applications for manumission at the British Agencies in the Gulf was significantly lower (only 280 of 950 documented cases in 1921–1946), likely because in the Islamic society of the Gulf, where women were excluded from wage labour and public life, it was impossible for a freedwoman to survive without a male protector. [16]
Common characteristics of slavery included the kidnapping of young boys by slave traffickers from regions such as Baluchistan, Yemen, Oman, or Africa, who were typically forced into indentured servitude in the pearling industry. Women, conversely, were often subjected to domestic servitude. Prominent reasons for seeking manumission encompassed experiences of violence, abuse, imprisonment, mistreatment, inadequate food and clothing, and the desire to reunite with family or avoid separation from them. [17]
Some of the archived manumission statements:
Sa'id bin Husain:
My parents were free persons living at Madina (Hedjaz). I was kidnapped from them when I was about 10 years old. I was brought by land to Kuwait, where I was sold to Salih Sulaiman al-Mana' of Qatar. My latter master brought me to Qatar and ever since I have been in his service. During summer I go to diving and in winter I work in the household. He used to give me very little money for my expenses. In the beginning he was treating me nicely and lately his treatment has been very bad, which fact has led me to run away. I, my wife Hasinah bint Marzook, and my son Abdur-Razzak walked from Dohah to the northern shore of Qatar where we joined a sailing boat as passengers for Bahrain. Now we have come to the Agency applying to be granted with manumission certificates. [18]
Statement of Almas bin Muhammad:
I was born at Mekran. When I was a small boy I went with my family to Dubai where we lived. About 5 years ago, while I was walking from Dubai to Sharjah, I was kidnapped by certain bedouins who took me to Buraimi and sold me to one Abdullah bin Ghurab. After a short period, Abdullah brought me to Qatar and sold me to my present master Saad bin Majid of Wakra in whose service I have been since then. My master used to send me out diving and take over my earnings. In other times I used to perform odd jobs for him. He was not giving me good treatment. He arrived recently with his family from Qatar and brought me along with. I seized the opportunity of my presence in Bahrain and came to the Agency praying that I may be manumitted. My master is staying at Halat Bu Mahir. [19]
Mubarak Bin Rozah:
My name is Mubarak bin Rozah. I am relating my name to my mother's because I do not know the name of my father nor the country from which I was brought to Qatar. I also do not know whether I was a born slave from slave parents or from free parents. I was too small, when I was brought to Qatar by the Bedouins, to recognize them. They sold me to one Sa'ad bin Husain, a Qatar subject. He died and I was transferred to his daughter Fatmah, who also died ... My master sold my wife and daughter to Sultan Walad Towar, who took my wife to Riyadh and sold her there. My daughter died at Qatar. I have been much ill-treated by this master and I have no intention to return to Qatar. I pray that I may be freed and allowed to remain at Bahrain. If I go back to Qatar, I will again be put into slavery, which I no longer like. [20]
Zalikah bint Jumah:
I am a born slave. My father Jumah was originally in Bahrain, and when he was a young boy, he was taken to Qatar and sold to Ali bin Qasim al-Thani, brother of the present Ruler of Qatar. My mother was a slave of one at Wakrah (Qatar). She was also purchased by the above Ali. My parents are still alive at Ummul-Silal (Qatar). I have three brothers and three sisters, who are now at Ummul-Silal. About one week ago, Nalleh bint Ahmed wife of the above Ali has come to Bahrain for treatment in the Mission Hospital. I came in her company. When I was at their house in Qatar, they always maltreat me, and I complain to the Ruler of Qatar, but he returns me to them. Yesterday Nalleh bint Ahmed accused me of some theft, and beaten me. They tied me up with a rope yesterday and last evening. This morning they release me, and as I am in Bahrain I escaped and I have come to the Agency applying for manumission. [21]
After World War II, there was a growing international pressure from the United Nations to end the slave trade. In 1948, the United Nations declared slavery to be a crime against humanity in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, after which the Anti-Slavery Society pointed out that there were about one million slaves in the Arabian Peninsula, which was a crime against the 1926 Slavery Convention, and demanded that the UN form a committee to handle the issue. [22] The UN formed the Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery in 1950, which resulted in the introduction of the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery. [23] The Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery filed a report on the chattel slavery in Qatar during the 1950-1951 investigation.
Slavery was finally abolished by the ruler of Qatar after British pressure in March 1952. [24] The Qatari government reimbursed formers slave owners financially and Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah Al Thani personally contributed with 25 percent of the compensation money. [6] By May 1952, manumission money had been paid for 660 slaves, the average compensation sum being 1,500 rupees, but for some, such as one slave girl, as much as 2,000 rupees; the compensation has been referred to as the first big distribution of wealth in Qatar. [6] The former slaves in Qatar became citizens after manumission. Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves.
In 1957 the British pressured the Gulf rulers to accept the 1956 Supplementary Slavery Convention in accordance with the Colonial Application; this was accepted by Kuwait, Qatar and Bahrain, but the rulers of the Trucial Coast stated that such a law could not be enforced. [25]
However, slaves are mentioned in Qatar after the official abolition of 1952. Sheiks of Qatar are recorded to have included slaves in their retinues when attending the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London in 1953, as well as during their visit in Britain in 1958. [26]
Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves, a notable example being Fatma Shaddad.
After the abolition of slavery, poor migrant workers were employed under the Kafala system, which have been compared to slavery. [27] In August 2020 Qatar abolished the Kafala system and introduced labor reforms. Under these reforms workers can change jobs without employer’s permission and are now paid a basic minimum wage regardless of their nationality. The basic minimum wage is set at 1,000 QAR. Allowances for food and accommodation must be provided by employers, which are 300 QAR and 500 QAR respectively. [28] Qatar introduced a wage protection system to ensure the employers are complying with the reforms. The wage protection system monitors the workers in the private sector. This new system has reduced wage abuses and disputes among migrant labours. [28]
In 2015, a museum about the slavery in Qatar was opened by the government in the Bin Jelmood house in Doha, which has been described as the first museum focused on slavery in the Arab world. [29] The Bin Jelmood Museum stands as a heritage residence dedicated to the examination and exploration of the historical subject of slavery in Qatar, delving into the broader history of the region. Viewed through the perspective of certain elder Qatari individuals, this museum is regarded as sensitive due to the relatively recent abolition of slavery. Many of the visitors sensitive to this place are individuals who lived through the corresponding historical era. [30]
Qatar has emerged as a highly desirable destination for immigrant labor due to comprehensive development across various sectors, encompassing infrastructure, economy, social services, urban planning, and more. Qatar held the highest percentage of expatriate labor globally in 2019, accounting for 89.5% of the workforce. This considerable foreign labor force is characterized by its diverse religious, cultural, and social backgrounds. The surge in expatriate workers can be traced back to the successful bid by the State of Qatar to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup Final in 2010. The preparation for this major event necessitated extensive infrastructure projects, including the construction of large stadiums, facilities, and hotels to accommodate international guests. A pivotal development in the 1960s was the introduction of the sponsorship system, known as "Kafala," aimed at regulating and controlling the entry and exit of expatriate labor.
The Kafala system establishes a legal relationship between the foreign worker and the employer, requiring every expatriate seeking employment in Qatar to have a sponsor, known as "Kafeel." The sponsor can be a Qatari citizen, an expatriate residing in Qatar, or a legal entity (company/institution) based in Qatar. The sponsor assumes responsibility for the expatriate's residency, facilitating the issuance and renewal of the professional visa every two years. Additionally, the sponsor provides accommodation, food, transportation, and health insurance to the workers. However, the Kafala system has been criticized for creating a power imbalance favoring local employers over migrant workers, exposing the latter to risks of human trafficking and forced labor.
In response to international labor standards, Qatar officially announced the abolition of the sponsorship system (Kafala) on December 12, 2016. This landmark decision aimed to replace the Kafala system with an employment contract, with the goal of improving the living conditions and safeguarding the rights of expatriate workers. The abolition of the sponsorship system was part of a broader reform package designed to enhance Qatar's labor market.[ citation needed ]
Officially, slavery in Qatar was abolished in the middle of the 20th century, but the conditions in which many workers who prepared the country for the FIFA World Cup lived and worked look almost like slavery. It was for long necessary for a migrant worker in Qatar to obtain an employer's permission to change the company worked for; this restriction was abolished in 2020. [32] In addition, a worker cannot leave the country without permission from their employer.
In some ways, it all resembles slavery, even at the official level, only with more correct formulations. [33]
According to the Global Slavery Index (created by the Walk Free Foundation, an international group of experts on combating slavery and human trafficking with the assistance of the Gallup research company), it estimates there are more than 30 thousand people in modern slavery in Qatar, with an estimated 6.8 out of 1,000 people enslaved, ranking #60 most slaves in per capita numbers, [34] and with one of the highest ratios of slavery prevalence per GDP per capita. [35]
In 2016, Qatar officially announced the abolition of kafala, but introduced an alternative. The employer was left with the right to decide whether to let foreign employees go home. If the employee and the authorities cannot find a compromise, the case is considered by the appeals commission. [36]
Qatar received the right to host the FIFA World Cup in December 2010. And already in 2012, the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) began receiving complaints from workers employed in the construction of facilities. By the beginning of 2013, the number of applications exceeded several thousand, after which MCP appealed to the Ministry of Labor of Qatar with a demand to deal with six contractors.
In its appeal, the Confederation of Trade Unions emphasized four types of violations: the nature of work does not correspond to what is provided for in the labor agreement; employers do not fulfill their obligations to pay wages; employers withdraw passports from employees; employees are forced to live in overcrowded labor camps and are deprived of the right to form trade unions.
In response to these accusations, the Qatari authorities promised to increase the number of inspectors at the 2022 World Cup facilities by 25% (their number was supposed to exceed 300 people), and the then president of the International Football Federation (FIFA) Sepp Blatter said that the situation with labor rights will be discussed at a meeting of the executive committee of the organization in early October 2013.
Approximately 100 days after the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar came to an end, a significant number of construction workers involved in the stadium construction found themselves unemployed, impoverished, and struggling to meet basic needs. Aboubacar, a construction worker in Qatar who anticipated a more promising legacy for his future, lamented a dire situation wherein he had gone without food for two days and remained unsuccessful in securing employment post the World Cup event. Qatar has garnered substantial criticism for the harsh conditions endured by numerous low-wage workers, encompassing issues such as wage deprivation, illicit recruitment fees, and instances of injury and fatality during the construction of stadiums and infrastructure. [37] In response to these infractions, Qatar implemented substantial labor reforms, enabling migrant workers to switch jobs without requiring employer consent and establishing an elevated and unbiased minimum wage. [38]
For the first time, The Guardian newspaper reported not just about rights violations, but also about deaths on construction sites for the World Cup in February 2014. The article claimed that in three years out of 2 million migrant workers, up to 4,000 workers could die from unbearable conditions and insecurity. The publication also reported which workers from which countries most often stay to work in Qatar—for example, immigrants from India make up 22% of the total number of people employed at the World Cup facilities, a similar share falls on Pakistan. About 16% of the workers are from Nepal, 13% from Iran, 11% from the Philippines, 8% from Egypt and 8% from Sri Lanka. [39]
Natives of the Arabian Peninsula, many Qataris are descended from a number of migratory Arab tribes that came to Qatar in the 18th century from mainly the neighboring areas of Nejd and Al-Hasa. Some are descended from Omani tribes. Qatar has about 2.6 million inhabitants as of early 2017, the vast majority of whom live in Doha, the capital. Foreign workers amount to around 88% of the population, the largest of which comprise South Asians, with those from India alone estimated to be around 700,000. Egyptians and Filipinos are the largest non-South Asian migrant group in Qatar. The treatment of these foreign workers has been heavily criticized with conditions suggested to be modern slavery. However the International Labour Organization published report in November 2022 that contained multiple reforms by Qatar for its migrant workers. The reforms included the establishment of the minimum wage, wage protection regulations, improved access for workers to justice, etc. It included data from last 4 years of progress in workers conditions of Qatar. The report also revealed that the freedom to change jobs was initiated, implementation of Occupational safety and health & labor inspection, and also the required effort from the nation's side.
Anti-Slavery International, founded as the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1839, is an international non-governmental organisation, registered charity and advocacy group, based in the United Kingdom. It is the world's oldest international human rights organisation, and works exclusively against slavery and related abuses.
Pearl hunting, also known as pearl fishing or pearling, is the activity of recovering or attempting to recover pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting was prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan for thousands of years. On the northern and north-western coast of Western Australia pearl diving began in the 1850s, and started in the Torres Strait Islands in the 1860s, where the term also covers diving for nacre or mother of pearl found in what were known as pearl shells.
The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the full title of which is the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, is a 1956 United Nations treaty which builds upon the 1926 Slavery Convention, which is still operative and which proposed to secure the abolition of slavery and of the slave trade, and the Forced Labour Convention of 1930, which banned forced or compulsory labour, by banning debt bondage, serfdom, child marriage, servile marriage, and child servitude.
In 2009 Qatar was a transit and destination country for men and women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and, to a much lesser extent, forced prostitution. Men and women from Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Sudan, Thailand, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and China voluntarily travelled to Qatar as laborers and domestic servants, but some subsequently faced conditions indicative of involuntary servitude. These conditions included threats of serious physical or financial harm; job switching; the withholding of pay; charging workers for benefits for which the employer is responsible; restrictions on freedom of movement, including the confiscation of passports and travel documents and the withholding of exit permits; arbitrary detention; threats of legal action and deportation; false charges; and physical, mental, and sexual abuse. In some cases, arriving migrant workers found that the terms of employment in Qatar were wholly different from those they agreed to in their home countries. Individuals employed as domestic servants were particularly vulnerable to trafficking since they are not covered under the provisions of the labor law. A small number of foreign workers transited Qatar and were forced to work on farms in Saudi Arabia. Qatar was also a destination for women who migrated and became involved in prostitution, but the extent to which these women were subjected to forced prostitution is unknown. Children have been used in Qatar and other Gulf countries as camel jockies. Most children are trafficked from Africa and South Asia. This practice has ceased in most areas though. Workers have been forced to work in bad conditions; their salaries are sometimes withheld.
The kafala system is a system that exists in many Arab countries in the Middle East, including most of the nations on the Arabian Peninsula, which involves binding migrant workers to a specific employer throughout the period of their residence in a country. The same system existed in Israel under the label "binding labour", until that country's supreme court eliminated it in 2006.
Slavery in international law is governed by a number of treaties, conventions and declarations. Foremost among these is the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948) that states in Article 4: “no one should be held in slavery or servitude, slavery in all of its forms should be eliminated.”
Slavery in Yemen was formally abolished in the 1960s. However, it has been reported that enslavement still occurred in the 21st-century.
The history of slavery in the Muslim world was throughout the history of Islam with slaves serving in various social and economic roles, from powerful emirs to harshly treated manual laborers. Slaves were widely employed in irrigation, mining, and animal husbandry, but most commonly as soldiers, guards, domestic workers, and concubines. The use of slaves for hard physical labor early on in Muslim history led to several destructive slave revolts, the most notable being the Zanj Rebellion of 869–883, and led to the end of the practice. Many rulers also used slaves in the military and administration to such an extent that slaves could seize power, as did the Mamluks.
Migrant workers in the Gulf Cooperation Council region involves the prevalence of migrant workers in the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Together, these six countries form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), established in 1981. The GCC cooperates on issues related to economy and politics, and the subject of migrant workers constitutes a substantial part of the council's collaboration. All of the GCC countries are dependent on migrant labor to bolster and stimulate economic growth and development, as the GCC countries possess an abundance of capital while the domestic labor capacity is low. Although migrant workers in the Persian Gulf region amount to no more than 10% of all migrants worldwide, they constitute a significant part of the populations of their host countries.
Legal chattel slavery existed in the area which was later to become Oman from antiquity until the 1970s. Oman was united with Zanzibar from the 1690s until 1856, and was a significant center of the Indian Ocean slave trade from Zanzibar in East Africa to the Arabian Peninsula and Iran, a central hub of the regional slave trade, which constituted a large part of its economy.
Legal Chattel slavery existed in Saudi Arabia until the 1960s.
Afro-Omanis are Omani people of African Zanj heritage. Most live in the coastal cities of Oman, with many speaking Arabic and adhering to Islam. Their origins date back to the time of the Arab slave trade and era Slavery in Oman, and when Zanzibar was a part of the Omani Empire.
Chattel slavery existed in the Trucial States (1892–1971), which later formed the United Arab Emirates. The Trucial States consisted of the Sheikdoms Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Fujairah, and Ras Al Khaimah. The region was mainly supplied with enslaved people from the Indian Ocean slave trade, but humans were also trafficked to the area from Hejaz, Oman and Persia. Slaves were used in the famous pearl fish industry and later in the oil industry, as well as sex slaves and domestic servants. Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves.
Open chattel slavery existed in Kuwait until 1949. Slavery was formally abolished in Kuwait in 1949. In practice, slavery was not actually abolished as such, but the law no longer recognized it after 1949, which meant that every slave who applied for manumission was guaranteered to be freed.
Open slavery existed in Bahrain until the 1930s. Slavery was formally abolished in Bahrain in 1937. Slavery ended earlier in Bahrain than in any other Gulf state, with the exception of Iran and Iraq. Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves. Slavery of people from Africa and East Asia was succeeded by the modern Kafala system of poor workers from the same region were slaves had previously been imported.
Afro-Emiratis, also known as African Emiratis and Black Emiratis, are Emiratis of full or partial Black African and Afro-Arab descent. They are mostly concentrated in the Northern Emirates. Despite their minority status within the broader Emirati population, they have a significant historical presence and cultural contribution, especially in sports and music.
Slavery existed in the territory of modern Lebanon until the 20th century. It was formally abolished by the French in 1931. Many members of the Afro-Arabian minority are descendants of the former slaves. Slavery of people from Africa and East Asia was succeeded by the modern Kafala system of poor workers from the same region where slaves had previously been imported.
The Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE) was a permanent committee of the League of Nations, inaugurated in 1933. It was the first permanent slavery committee of the League of Nations, which was founded after a decade of work addressing the issue of slavery by temporary committees within the League.
The Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery was a committee of the United Nations (UN), created in 1950. It investigated the occurrence of slavery on a global level. Its final report resulted in the introduction of the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery of 1956.
