Slavery in Nigeria

Last updated

Slavery has existed in various forms throughout the history of Nigeria, notably during the Atlantic slave trade and Trans-Saharan trade. [1] [2] Slavery is now illegal internationally and in Nigeria. [2] However, legality is often overlooked with different pre-existing cultural traditions, which view certain actions differently. [2] In Nigeria, certain traditions and religious practices have led to "the inevitable overlap between cultural, traditional, and religious practices as well as national legislation in many African states" which has had the power to exert extra-legal control over many lives resulting in modern-day slavery. [3] The most common forms of modern slavery in Nigeria are human trafficking and child labor. [2] Because modern slavery is difficult to recognize, it has been difficult to combat this practice despite international and national efforts. [2]

Contents

History of slavery in Nigeria

The traditional slave trade in Southern Nigeria preceded the arrival of European influence, [4] and continued locally long after the effective abolition of slavery in many other countries. [5]

With the arrival of the transatlantic slave trade, traditional slave traders in southeastern Nigeria became suppliers of slaves to European slave traders. [4] Although local slavery was officially prohibited by the colonial British administration from the mid-1880s, [6] they tacitly permitted it to continue well into the 1930s, [7] ending completely only in the 1940s. [5] [8]

In 1961, the newly independent First Nigerian Republic ratified the 1926 Slavery Convention.

Igbo

The Igbo traditionally maintained the Osu caste system of the Odinani religion. Osu were people who were regarded as spiritually inferior, and they were segregated from regular Igbo society. Osu were either kept as slaves or sold into the slave trade. As of 2020, Osu descendants still face discrimination among the Igbo people. [9] Local campaigners against discrimination have aligned themselves with the global Black Lives Matter movement, comparing the treatment of slave descendants in Nigeria with the treatment of Black people in the United States. [10]

Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate was a powerful 19th-century Sunni Muslim caliphate with its capital Sokoto located in northern Nigeria. The caliphate brought decades of economic growth throughout the region. An estimated 1-2.5 million non-Muslim slaves were captured during the Fulani War. [11] Slaves worked plantations but may also have been granted freedom conditional on conversion to Islam. [12] By 1900, Sokoto had "at least 1 million and perhaps as many as 2.5 million slaves". [11]

Yoruba

Slavery had traditionally existed among the Yoruba people before it was officially abolished by the British in 1893, during colonialism. [13] Owning slaves was a status symbol in Yoruba society. A Yoruba person who owned slaves displayed signs of being a wealthy and influential person. [13] Slaves were typically captured during territorial expansion and internal and intertribal wars. [13] If a town captured another in a war, the captured people would become enslaved by their captors. [13] Slaves typically worked for powerful elites of Yoruba society, and they were tasked with farm cultivation, clearing land, or other personal purposes. [13]

Contact with Muslims and Europeans enhanced the popularity of slavery among the Yoruba people. [13] Yoruba elites such as warriors, powerful kings, chiefs, and wealthy merchants began to participate in slave trading because it was a profitable source of income. [13] Foreign merchants supplied Yoruba business partners with powerful weapons such as rifles in exchange for slaves. [13] The Yoruba used these weapons to conquer their enemies and sell them into the slave trade. [13]

Yoruba slave categories

There were three categories of slaves in Yoruba society: ìwọ̀fà, war captives, and criminals. [13] The term ìwọ̀fà refers to slaves who were voluntarily handed over by one family to another as a collateral to pay off a loan. The slave typically worked for their master as long as the loan remained unpaid. The ìwọ̀fà could own property and visit their family, but their freedoms remained restricted by their masters.

War captives were another category. [13] Warriors who were victorious in war typically brought war captives to important chiefs and kings, who enslaved them and forced them to work on their farms or work in trades. The treatment of the slaves varied depending on the personality of the masters, and the behaviors of the slaves themselves. Efunsetan Aniwura, the Iyalode of Ibadan, was reputed to be an extremely cruel slave master who punished her slaves with death by decapitation. In some situations, slaves emerged as heads of their households or eventually gained freedom.

Types of modern slavery in Nigeria

Human trafficking

Human trafficking involves the “act and attempted act of recruitment and transportation of persons (both male and female) within or across borders”. [2] Human trafficking is the fastest-growing form of slavery. [14] The majority of those forced into human trafficking are forced into the commercial sex trade or forced labor. [14] Human trafficking poses detrimental economic and social consequences in Nigeria. [15] There are different forms of human trafficking in Nigeria. [15] Human trafficking in Nigeria is increasing with both domestic and international human trafficking. [15] Nigeria has also become a transit corridor through which traffickers convey their victims to other countries”. [15]

Causes for human trafficking

There is no exact date for when human trafficking in Nigeria began but it began to rise in Nigeria in the early 1990s with the increase in drug trafficking and the Advanced Fee Fraud (419). [2] There have been significantly different levels of awareness of human trafficking as well as differences in how different Nigerian ethnic groups acknowledge the practice of human trafficking. [15] Due to the differences in perception of this practice, the Nigerian government has had difficulty in “coordinating resources to eradicate the menace in the country”. [15] It is also very difficult to identify victims of human trafficking due to the many forms of trafficking as well as lack of training on how to recognize victims. [14]

External trafficking

External trafficking, or international trafficking, involves the trafficking of people across "national, continental and international borders for the purpose of sex work, child labour and domestic service in exchange for monetary reward”. [2] Across international borders each year, between 800,000 and 4,000,000 people are trafficked, with women and children being the most common victims. [16]

Most Nigerian women and children victims of human trafficking end up externally trafficked to Europe, specifically Italy. [17] The Middle East and North America are also common places for trafficked persons from Nigeria to end up "for the purposes of adoption, domestic and agricultural labor, and for the sale of their human body parts". [16] Children victims of human trafficking from Nigeria often are trafficked in Nigeria or other African countries. [16] Human trafficking is a significant transnational crime, which is seen as similar to a modern day slave trade. [16]

Edo state is recorded to have the highest percentage of externally trafficked victims in Nigeria. [15]

The most prevalent occurrence of external human trafficking for exploitative purposes is in Edo (20.4%), Rivers (8.6%), Cross River (7.1%), Anambra (6.8%), Delta (6.4%), Bayelsa (5.7%), Ebonyi (5.4%), and Imo (3.2%). [15] The Federal Capital Territory (5.7%) and Borno state (5.0%). [15]

Internal trafficking

Internal trafficking, or domestic trafficking is the “recruitment and transportation of persons within the borders of a country, either from rural to urban areas or from one State to another, for purposes of sex work, child labor, or domestic services”. [2]

The most prevalent existence of internal human trafficking for labor occurs in Benue (16.4%), Akwa Ibom (13.2%), Kogi (9.5%), Kano (4.1%), Jigawa (4.1%), Borno (3.6%), Edo (3.6), Kaduna (3.6%), Kwara (3.6%) and Niger (3.6%) states. [15]

Trafficking of women

Nigerian women are trafficked mainly for the purpose of sexual exploitation. [18] They are mainly externally trafficked. [18] The number of Nigerian victims of human trafficking is one of the highest in Western Europe. [18]

Causes for trafficking of women

This trafficking crisis in Nigeria is caused by socioeconomic factors. [17] Religion, with an Islam majority in the North and Christian majority in the South, has also played a key role in conflict throughout Nigeria resulting in poverty. [17]

Juju

Juju co-exists in Nigeria along with Christianity and Islam. [18] Juju affects Nigerian human trafficking since many believe that “a priest connected to a voodoo shrine has the power to manipulate outcomes in people's lives”. [18] There is a large extent of control on women by the juju ritual. [18] The priests typically cooperate with criminal elements in Nigeria, and many priests are even paid by the criminals . [18] Thus, this leads to a stronger hold over women since the mafia then threaten the victims and their families if the girls fail to cooperate. [18] The Nigerian mafia “handles the travel documents and transportation to Europe” and from here the madams purchase the girls for work. [19]

Role of madams

Most of the human trafficking of women is controlled by other women. [20] Victims come from the 'madams', who act as female pimps, and are most often former prostitutes. [20]

These madams own girls until they have repaid their debts. [18] Madams pay for the transportation of the girl who they are recruiting. [18] An incentive for these girls is the future chance of obtaining an income as a madam, resulting in a cycle of exploitation. [18]

This is an extremely prominent practice in Nigeria today, with one third of women having been approached by a madam before. [19]

Boko Haram

Boko Haram plays a large role in the trafficking of women in Nigeria by kidnapping girls and forcing them into slavery. [21] Boko Haram has kidnapped more than 1000 children in Nigeria since 2013 according to UNICEF. [22] One of the main kidnappings, known as the Chibok school girls kidnapping, occurred in Borno State where Abubakar Shekau released a video stating he "would sell 276 Nigerian girls into slavery". [23]

Child slavery

In Nigeria, there are two main types of child slavery: forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. [14] It is hard to identify child slavery in Nigeria due to the ambiguity between work labor and family chores. [24]

Forced labor

Nigerian children are forced into the types of labor including agricultural labor, “domestic servitude, carpet making, jewelry making, clothes making, camel jockeying, and war (as child soldiers). [14] Nigerian children are also forced into mining where they are put at extreme risk due to the rigorous labor required. [24]

Sexual exploitation

There seems to be a high correlation between “childhood sexual abuse and child prostitution in Nigeria”. [14] This type of child slavery may include "prostitution, pornography, sex tourism, sex rings, nude dancing or modeling, and sexual exploitation of child domestic servants”. [14]

Efforts to combat modern slavery

Human trafficking is difficult to combat because it is not easily identifiable. [14] Yet, there have been efforts to combat modern slavery. [25]

Domestic efforts

The Nigerian government recognizes that “the crime of trafficking in persons poses a major threat to Nigeria's development and stability, and that it poses a major threat to its values and national economy”. [16] Thus, many efforts have been made to combat this issue. The National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons (NAPTIP) was created to combat human trafficking in 2003. [16] This agency is involved in the punishment of human traffickers, the investigation of officers, and the reintegration of victims into society. [16]

International treaties that Nigeria has signed include: The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Crime, the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, and the Protocol Against Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms. [16]

International efforts

There have been some international efforts to address the problems of modern slavery in Nigeria. [25]

In Geneva, Switzerland, 70 queens and wives of heads of state, along with many other important international figures, attended a conference on the plight of rural women in Third World countries, hoping to address the issues women face. [25]

Modern slavery can occur due to the amount of debt some African countries have, including Nigeria. [26] One effort to fix this was by the Bush administration by cancelling the debts of 18 countries, including Nigeria. [27]

The Jubilee movement also cancelled the debts of 50 or more countries, including Nigeria. [27]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual slavery</span> Slavery with the intention of using the slaves for sex

Sexual slavery and sexual exploitation is an attachment of any ownership right over one or more people with the intent of coercing or otherwise forcing them to engage in sexual activities. This includes forced labor that results in sexual activity, forced marriage and sex trafficking, such as the sexual trafficking of children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child slavery</span>

Child slavery is the slavery of children. The enslavement of children can be traced back through history. Even after the abolition of slavery, children continue to be enslaved and trafficked in modern times, which is a particular problem in developing countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex trafficking</span> Trade of sexual slaves

Sex trafficking is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation. It has been called a form of modern slavery because of the way victims are forced into sexual acts non-consensually, in a form of sexual slavery. Perpetrators of the crime are called sex traffickers or pimps—people who manipulate victims to engage in various forms of commercial sex with paying customers. Sex traffickers use force, fraud, and coercion as they recruit, transport, and provide their victims as prostitutes. Sometimes victims are brought into a situation of dependency on their trafficker(s), financially or emotionally. Every aspect of sex trafficking is considered a crime, from acquisition to transportation and exploitation of victims. This includes any sexual exploitation of adults or minors, including child sex tourism (CST) and domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST).

Forced prostitution, also known as involuntary prostitution or compulsory prostitution, is prostitution or sexual slavery that takes place as a result of coercion by a third party. The terms "forced prostitution" or "enforced prostitution" appear in international and humanitarian conventions, such as the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, but have been inconsistently applied. "Forced prostitution" refers to conditions of control over a person who is coerced by another to engage in sexual activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in contemporary Africa</span> Modern history of slavery in Africa

The continent of Africa is one of the regions most rife with contemporary slavery. Slavery in Africa has a long history, within Africa since before historical records, but intensifying with the trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave trade and again with the trans-Atlantic slave trade; the demand for slaves created an entire series of kingdoms which existed in a state of perpetual warfare in order to generate the prisoners of war necessary for the lucrative export of slaves. These patterns persisted into the colonial period during the late 19th and early 20th century. Although the colonial authorities attempted to suppress slavery from about 1900, this had very limited success, and after decolonization, slavery continues in many parts of Africa despite being technically illegal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Cambodia</span>

Cambodia is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking. The traffickers are reportedly organized crime syndicates, parents, relatives, friends, intimate partners, and neighbors. Despite human trafficking being a crime in Cambodia, the country has a significant child sex tourism problem; some children are sold by their parents, while others are lured by what they think are legitimate job offers like waitressing, but then are forced into prostitution. Children are often held captive, beaten, and starved to force them into prostitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in the 21st century</span> Contemporary slavery, also known as modern slavery or neo-slavery

Contemporary slavery, also sometimes known as modern slavery or neo-slavery, refers to institutional slavery that continues to occur in present-day society. Estimates of the number of enslaved people today range from around 38 million to 49.6 million, depending on the method used to form the estimate and the definition of slavery being used. The estimated number of enslaved people is debated, as there is no universally agreed definition of modern slavery; those in slavery are often difficult to identify, and adequate statistics are often not available.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in South Africa</span>

Human trafficking in South Africa occurs as a practice of forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation among imported and exported trafficked men, women, and children. Generally, South African girls are trafficked for the purposes of commercial sexual exploitation and domestic servitude, while boys are used for street vending, food service, and agriculture. Anecdotal evidence suggests that South African children can also be forced to provide unpaid labor for landowners in return for land occupancy, living accommodation, or for maintaining labor tenancy rights. In any case, this form of unpaid labor has caused human trafficking to be described as a modern form of slavery. Human trafficking is the result of a combination of several factors, including gender inequality, economic instability, and political conflict. Since Africa experiences all of these, it is an active hub for human trafficking. Many urge for the need of a cultural shift to reduce instances of human trafficking by lessening the demand for sex and unpaid labor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking</span> Trade of humans for exploitation

Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation.

Afghanistan is one of the source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Trafficking within Afghanistan is more prevalent than transnational trafficking, and the majority of victims are children. In 2005 the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) reported 150 child trafficking cases to other states. Afghan boys and girls are trafficked within the country and into Iran, Pakistan and India as well as Persian gulf Arab states, where they live as slaves and are forced to prostitution and forced labor in brick kilns, carpet-making factories, and domestic service. In some cases the boys and girls were used for organ trafficking. Forced begging is a growing problem in Afghanistan; Mafia groups organize professional begging rings. Afghan boys are subjected to forced prostitution and forced labor in the drug smuggling industry in Pakistan and Iran. Afghan women and girls are subjected to forced prostitution, arranged and forced marriages—including those in which husbands force their wives into prostitution—and involuntary domestic servitude in Pakistan and Iran, and possibly India. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) report that over the past year, increasing numbers of boys were trafficked internally. Some families knowingly sell their children for forced prostitution, including for bacha bazi - a practice combining sexual slavery and child prostitution, through which wealthy men use harems of young boys for social and sexual entertainment. Other families send their children with brokers to gain employment. Many of these children end up in forced labor, particularly in Pakistani carpet factories. NGOs indicate that families sometimes make cost-benefit analyses regarding how much debt they can incur based on their tradable family members.

Niger is a source, transit, and destination country for children and women subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Caste-based slavery practices, rooted in ancestral master-slave relationships, continue primarily in the northern part of the country. Children are trafficked within Niger for forced begging by religious instructors known as marabouts; forced labor in gold mines, agriculture, and stone quarries; as well as for involuntary domestic servitude and forced prostitution. The ILO estimates at least 10,000 children work in gold mines in Niger, many of whom may be forced to work. Nigerien children, primarily girls, are also subjected to commercial sexual exploitation along the border with Nigeria, particularly in the towns of Birni N'Konni and Zinder along the main highway, and boys are trafficked to Nigeria and Mali for forced begging and manual labor. There were reports Nigerien girls entered into "false marriages" with citizens of Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates: upon arrival in these countries, the girls are often forced into involuntary domestic servitude. Child marriage was a problem, especially in rural areas, and may have contributed to conditions of human trafficking. Niger is a transit country for women and children from Benin, Burkina Faso, Gabon, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo en route to Northern Africa and Western Europe; some may be subjected to forced labor in Niger as domestic servants, forced laborers in mines and on farms, and as mechanics and welders. To a lesser extent, Nigerien women and children are sometimes trafficked from Niger to North Africa the Middle East, and Europe for involuntary domestic servitude and forced commercial sexual exploitation."

Nigeria is a source, transit, and destination country for women and children subjected to trafficking in persons including forced labour and forced prostitution. The U.S. State Department's Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons placed the country in "Tier 2 Watchlist" in 2017. Trafficked people, particularly women and children, are recruited from within and outside the country's borders – for involuntary domestic servitude, sexual exploitation, street hawking, domestic servitude, mining, begging etc. Some are taken from Nigeria to other West and Central African countries, primarily Gabon, Cameroon, Ghana, Chad, Benin, Togo, Niger, Burkina Faso, and the Gambia, for the same purposes. Children from other West African states like Benin, Togo, and Ghana – where Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) rules allow for easy entry – are also forced to work in Nigeria, and some are subjected to hazardous jobs in Nigeria's granite mines. Europe, especially Italy and Russia, the Middle East and North Africa, are prime destinations for forced prostitution.Nigerians accounted for 21% of the 181,000 migrants that arrived in Italy through the Mediterranean in 2016 and about 21,000 Nigerian women and girls have been trafficked to Italy since 2015.

Iraq is both a source and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced prostitution and forced labor. Iraqi women and girls, some as young as 11 years old, are subjected to conditions of human trafficking within the country and in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Qatar, and possibly Saudi Arabia for forced prostitution and sexual exploitation within households.

Human trafficking is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. Mexico is a large source, transit, and destination country for victims of human trafficking.

Morocco is a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children who are subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor and forced prostitution. Children are trafficked within the country from rural areas to urban centers to work as maids or laborers, or for commercial sexual exploitation. Moroccan men, women, and children are exploited for forced labor and prostitution in European and Middle Eastern countries. Young Moroccan girls from rural areas are recruited to work as child maids in cities, but often experience non-payment of wages, threats, and physical or sexual abuse, and sometimes face restrictions on movement. These practices indicate that these girls are subjected to involuntary servitude. Moroccan boys experience forced labor as apprentices in the artisan and construction industries and in mechanic shops. A few Moroccan men and boys are lured to Europe by fraudulent job offers, and are subsequently forced to sell drugs. In addition, men and women from sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Philippines enter Morocco voluntarily but illegally with the assistance of smugglers; once in Morocco, some of the women are coerced into prostitution or, less frequently, forced into domestic service. Nigerian gangs, who engage in a variety of criminal activities like human smuggling and drug trafficking, compete to control the trafficking of sub-Saharan Africans in Morocco.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in Texas</span>

Human trafficking in Texas is the illegal trade of human beings as it occurs in the state of Texas. It is a modern-day form of slavery and usually involves commercial sexual exploitation or forced labor, both domestic and agricultural.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slavery in Haiti</span> Slave labor as a legal institution extant 1492–1804

Slavery in Haiti began after the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island in 1492 with the European colonists that followed from Portugal, Spain and France. The practice was devastating to the native population. Following the indigenous Tainos' near decimation from forced labor, disease and war, the Spanish, under initial advisement of the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas and with the blessing of the Catholic church, began engaging in earnest during the 17th century in the forced labor of enslaved Africans. During the French colonial period, beginning in 1625, the economy of Saint-Domingue, was based on slavery; conditions on Saint-Domingue became notoriously bad even compared to chattel slavery conditions elsewhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Contemporary slavery in the United States</span>

Slavery is a system which requires workers to work against their will for little to no compensation. In modern-day terms, this practice is more widely referred to as human trafficking. Human trafficking is defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime as “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation”. The practices of slavery and human trafficking are still prevalent in modern America with estimated 17,500 foreign nationals and 400,000 Americans being trafficked into and within the United States every year with 80% of those being women and children. Human trafficking in the United States can be divided into the two major categories of labor and sex trafficking, with sex trafficking accounting for a majority of cases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human trafficking in New York</span>

Human trafficking in New York is the illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, and forced labor. It occurs in the state of New York and is widely recognized as a modern-day form of slavery. It includes, "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs."

.

References

  1. ↑ "Modern slavery: Nigeria ranks highest in Africa". 23 August 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Akor, Linus. “TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN IN NIGERIA: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND THE WAY FORWARD.” Corvinus Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 2.2 (2011): 89–110. Print.
  3. ↑ Sarich, J., Olivier, M., & Bales, K. (2016). Forced marriage, slavery, and plural legal systems: An african example. Human Rights Quarterly, 38(2), 450-476,542-544.
  4. 1 2 Nwaubani, Adaobi Tricia (2020-07-19). "'My Nigerian great-grandfather sold slaves'". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
  5. 1 2 Nwaubani, Adaobi Tricia (July 15, 2018). "My Great-Grandfather, the Nigerian Slave-Trader". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
  6. ↑ Afigbo, A. E. (Adiele Eberechukwu) (2006). The abolition of the slave trade in southeastern Nigeria, 1885-1950. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. ISBN   978-1-58046-668-4. OCLC   256735611.
  7. ↑ Northrup, David (September 2007). "A. E. Afigbo. The Abolition of the Slave Trade in Southeastern Nigeria. 1885-1950. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2006. Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora. xv + 210 pp. Maps. Appendixes. Bibliography. Index. $75.00. Cloth". African Studies Review. 50 (2): 228–229. doi:10.1353/arw.2007.0116. ISSN   0002-0206. S2CID   154102268.
  8. ↑ Aderinto, Saheed (April 2012). ""The problem of Nigeria is slavery, not white slave traffic": Globalization and the politicization of prostitution in Southern Nigeria, 1921–1955". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 46 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/00083968.2012.659576. ISSN   0008-3968. S2CID   142931373.
  9. ↑ Nwaubani, Adaobi Tricia (July 11, 2019). "The Descendants of Slaves in Nigeria Fight for Equality". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
  10. ↑ "Nigeria's Slave Descendants Hope Race Protests Help End Discrimination". www.voanews.com. June 29, 2020. Retrieved 2020-07-19.
  11. 1 2 McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D. (2011). A History of World Societies, Volume 2: Since 1450, Volume 2. Macmillan. p. 755. ISBN   9780312666934.
  12. ↑ Lovejoy, Paul E. (1978). "Plantations in the Economy of the Sokoto Caliphate". The Journal of African History. 19 (3): 341–368. doi:10.1017/s0021853700016200. S2CID   154760889.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Falola, Toyin; Akínyẹmí, Akíntúndé (2016). Encyclopedia of the Yoruba. Bloomington. ISBN   978-0253021441.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Balarezo, C. A. (2013). Selling humans: The political economy of contemporary global slavery (Order No. 3648153). Available from Worldwide Political Science Abstracts.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ahmed O Ogunwale. “The Nexus Between Perception and Human Trafficking Prevalence in Nigeria.” International Journal of Law, Psychology and Human Life 4.1 (2017): 1–7. Print.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ngwe, J. E., PhD., & Elechi, O. O. (2012). HUMAN TRAFFICKING: THE MODERN DAY SLAVERY OF THE 21ST CENTURY. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies : AJCJS, 6(1), 103-119.
  17. 1 2 3 Ngwe, J. E., PhD., & Elechi, O. O. (2012). HUMAN TRAFFICKING: THE MODERN DAY SLAVERY OF THE 21ST CENTURY. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies : AJCJS, 6(1), 103-119. Retrieved from ProQuest   1467253780
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Baarda, C.S. “Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation from Nigeria into Western Europe: The Role of Voodoo Rituals in the Functioning of a Criminal Network.” European Journal of Criminology 13.2 (2016): 257–273. Web.
  19. 1 2 SIDDHARTH KARA. Modern Slavery: A Global Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017. Web.
  20. 1 2 Quirk, Joel., and Darshan. Vigneswaran. Slavery, Migration and Contemporary Bondage in Africa /[edited by] Joel Quirk and Darshan Vigneswaran. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2013. Print.
  21. ↑ CNN, Stephanie Busari. "UNICEF: Boko Haram has kidnapped more than 1000 children in Nigeria". CNN. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  22. ↑ Stephanie Busari (13 April 2018). "UNICEF: Boko Haram has kidnapped more than 1000 children in Nigeria". CNN. Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  23. ↑ "Boko Haram: Spotlight on Human Trafficking – World Policy" . Retrieved 2020-11-17.
  24. 1 2 Okpalaobi, B. Nkechi. “Children and Modern Day Slavery.” African research review 10.1 (2016): 17–. Web.
  25. 1 2 3 "Developing Nations: Conference on Third World Women." Infobase, February 25, 1992. Accessed September 30, 2020.
  26. ↑ Woods, E. (2007). Slavery persists. (). Washington: Inter-Hemispheric Resource Center Press. Retrieved from PAIS Index Retrieved from ProQuest   209939528
  27. 1 2 Woods, E. (2007). Slavery persists. (). Washington: Inter-Hemispheric Resource Center Press.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.