The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[3] finds that Nigeria is fulfilling 48.2% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income.[4] When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Nigeria achieves 66.6% of what is expected based on its current income.[4] In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves only 61.7% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.[4] Nigeria falls into the "very bad" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the nation is fulfilling only 16.3% of what the nation is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.[4]
Source: Institute for Health Metric and Evaluation (IHME)[1]
Source: Under-5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live births) and Life expectancy at birth (years). Estimates developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation
(UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population Division)[5][6]
Comparison of health situations in Nigeria with some reference countries, regions and the world
Countries/Regions
Life expectancy at birth (2007)
Life expectancy at birth (2017)
U5MR per 1000 live births (2017)
U5MR per 1000 live births (2007)
Estimated population (2018)
Nigeria
49
54
146
100
195 million+
Reference countries
Ghana (Western Africa)
60
63
82
49
29 million+
Malawi (Southern Africa)
53
64
103
55
18 million+
Rwanda (Eastern Africa)
59
67
88
38
13 million+
Sudan (Northern Africa)
61
67
84
63
41 million+
Norway
80
83
4
3
5 million+
United States
78
79
8
7
327 million+
China
75
76
20
9
1.393 billion
Australia
81
82
5
4
24 million
Reference regions & world
East Asia & Pacific
74
76
26
16
2.328 billion
Europe & Central Asia
75
78
15
9
918 million+
Latin America & the Caribbean
73
76
24
18
641 million+
Middle East & North Africa
72
74
31
23
448 million+
South Asia
66
69
71
45
1.814 billion
Sub-Saharan Africa
55
61
116
76
1.078 billion
World
70
72
58
39
7.594 billion
Source: United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects: 2017 Revision. The World Bank Group[5][6][7]
Maternal mortality rate in Nigeria is above 800 per 100,000 live births.[8] In 2013, the rate in Nigeria was 560 deaths per 100,000 live births; whereas in 1980, it was 516 deaths 100,000 per live births.[9] This may be as a result of poor health facilities, lack of access to quality health care,[10]malnutrition due to poverty, herder-farmer conflicts, female genital mutilations, abortions,[11] and displacements due to Boko Haram terrorism in the North East of Nigeria.[12] In Nigeria the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 22.[8] Nigeria's abortion laws make it one of the most restrictive countries regarding abortion.[13]
A study published in 2019 investigated the competency of emergency obstetric care among health providers and found it lower than average.[14] Another study shows decrease in maternal mortality in the southern part of the country while it's still on the increase in North due to low level of education.[15]
Maternal mortality affects the socioeconomic development of the country negatively.[16] SDG goal 3 – target 1 aims to reduce Nigeria's maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100, 000 live births by 2023. People can start by promoting and protecting their own health and the health of those around them, by making well-informed choices, practising safe sex and attending antenatal care in government approved health centres. There should be more awareness in communities about the importance of good health, healthy lifestyles as well as people's right to quality health care services, especially for the most vulnerable such as women and children. Government, local leaders and other decision makers should be held accountable to their commitments to improve people's access to health and health care.[editorializing]
Access to an improved water source stagnated at 47% of the population from 1990 to 2006, then increased to 54% in 2010. In urban areas access decreased from 80% to 65% in 2006, and then recovered to 74% in 2010.[17]
Adequate sanitation is typically in the form of septic tanks, as there is no central sewage system, except for in Abuja and some areas of Lagos.[18] A 2006 study estimated that only 1% of Lagos households were connected to general sewers.[19] In 2016, mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene is 68.6 deaths per 100,000 populations.[20]
The Nigeria HIV/AIDS indicator and impact survey 2018 revealed that the national HIV prevalence rate among adults ages 15–49 is 1.4 percent.[21] The prevalence of HIV in Nigeria varies widely by region and states. Akwa Ibom State has the highest prevalence rate of HIV with 5.6 percent and disease burden of 200,051 percentage of deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and followed by Benue State (4.9%, 188,482 DALYs) and Rivers (3.8%, 196,225 DALYs).[22] The States, Jigawa (12,804 DALYs) and Katsina (26,597 DALYs) both have the lowest prevalence of 0.3 percent.[23] The epidemic is more concentrated and driven by high-risk behaviors, including having multiple sexual partners, low risk perceptions, inadequate access to quality health care services,[24] as well as street/road hawking of goods by itinerant workers (hawkers) especially, around military and police checkpoints.[25] Other risk factors that contribute to the spread of HIV, including prostitution, high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections, clandestine high-risk homosexual/heterosexual practices, and women trafficking.[26] Youth and young adults in Nigeria are particularly vulnerable to HIV, with young women at higher risk than young men.[26]
Malaria
Malaria, a disease caused by mosquitoes has resulted in untold morbidity and mortality in Nigeria. Although, there has been slight decline in malarial transmission and deaths since 2007 it ranked the number one cause of deaths in the country,[1] the disease still remain unflagging. As of 2012, the malaria prevalence rate was 11 percent.[27][28] A part of this data is from the President's Malaria Initiative which identifies Nigeria as a high-burden country.[29] Nigeria's branch dealing with this problem, the National Malaria Control Program recognized the problem and embraced the World Malaria Day theme of "End Malaria for Good".[30]
In 2017, according to IHME ranking, malaria ranked the fourth on the causes of most deaths in Nigeria with U5MR and under-1 child mortality of 103.2 deaths and 62.6 deaths per 1,000 live births respectively.[1] With pockets of high-level transmission persisting in states across Nigeria coupled with the never-ending struggle against drug and insecticide resistance as well as the socio-economic costs associated with a failure to eradicate the disease,[31]malaria eradication by 2050 seems unachievable. However, the step to eradicate the disease is a bold attainable goal if concerted efforts are put in place. The challenge of ineffective management of malaria prevention and control programs and inadequate use of data to inform strategies should be addressed. The control of mosquitoes, high quality diagnosis, and treatment are very necessary if the problem is to be successfully eradicated.[editorializing] Strong and committed leadership at various levels of government in Nigeria, reinforced through transparency and independent accountability mechanisms are very important to ensure a complete eradication of malaria in the country.[editorializing][31]
Endemic diseases
In 1985, an incidence of yellow fever devastated a town in Nigeria, leading to the death of 1000 people. In a span of 5 years, the epidemic grew, with a resulting rise in mortality. The yellow fever vaccine has been in existence since the 1930s.[32] There are other endemic diseases in the country which include malaria, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, typhoid, meningitis.[33] and lassa fever.[34] Travelers are normally advised to get travel vaccines and medicines because of the risk of these diseases in the country.[33]
Food
Nutrition, especially in the north of the country, is often poor. Since 2002, food staples are supposed to be fortified with nutrients such as vitamin A, folic acid, zinc, iodine and iron. Bill Gates, said there had been "pushback" by some in Nigerian industries as this reduced profit margins. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is donating[when?] $5 million over four years to implement a rigorous testing regime to make sure these standards are met. These nutrients would reach poorer children who ate mainly a cereal and beans diet at very low cost and reduce the risk of stunting. Vitamin A would reduce the risk of death from measles or diarrhoea. In some districts 7% of children die before they reach the age of five. Nearly half of these are attributable to malnutrition. Aliko Dangote, whose companies supply salt, sugar and flour, said there would need to be a crack down on the import of low-quality foodstuff, often smuggled into local markets.[35]
The aquatic systems in Nigeria are reservoirs for toxic chemicals. The activities of oil and gas industries as well as widespread discharge of effluents into water ways is an eyesore.[36] Chemical substances such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances as well as heavy metals find their way into oceans, rivers and streams and contaminate them.[37][38][39] In 2018, The Nation newspaper reported improper waste disposal in the country, emphasizing that there is no proper waste management system, hence the cause of the indiscriminate dumping of refuse, used polythene bags, plastic bottles and other liquid and solid wastes in the environment.[40] The Huffingtonpost in May 2017[41] raised an alarm on the incessant dumping of plastics in the ocean. It posited that 'the oceans are drowning in plastics – and no one is paying attention to the menace'; and by indication, it seems people are overwhelmed by their own waste. Amidst this, Ellen MacArthur Foundation in Partnership with the World Economic Forum predicted that by 2050, plastic in the oceans will outweigh fish. With expected surge in consumption, negative externalities related to plastics will multiply by that time. Most wastes materials contain estrogenic chemicals - (estrogens) and androgenic chemicals - (androgens) and they have potential to leach into the surrounding environment, impact on the ecosystem and may alter hormonal functions.[39][42] These contaminants and many other chemicals are toxic to aquatic lives, most often affecting their life spans and ability to reproduce;[42] they make their way up the food chain as predator eats prey and bioaccumulate in the adipose tissues of these organisms.
Air
Nigeria's air quality is said to be among the most unsafe globally (ranked 4th) and four of its major cities – Onitsha, Aba, Kaduna, and Umuahia are among the worst polluted cities in the world in term of particulate matter of size 10 micrometers and below (PM10). The most recent report by WHO indicate that the country's annual mean concentration PM2.5 is 72 μg/m3, far exceeding the recommended maximum of 10 μg/m3.[43] Data from the institutes of Health Metrics and Evaluation on Global disease burden (GBD) was used to ascertain the cause of death and DALYs in Nigeria from 2007 – 2017 and published literature where reviewed. According to World Health data report, most of the highest ranked causes of DALYs are related to environmental risk factors including chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, communicable diseases, maternal, neonatal and nutritional disease, which has cause about 800 thousand deaths and 26 million DALYs per year in Nigeria. Major environmental risks include indoor air pollution, ambient air pollution, water, sanitation and hygiene, although there is prolong and progressive decline in these except ambient PM and ground ozone pollution which show a steady rise associated with death and DALYs in Nigeria indicating a significant concern in environment health situation.[44]
Table showing the proportion of death for each disease attributed to air pollution in Nigeria at 2019 for both sexes and all ages[45]
Disease/disorder
Air pollution attributable share of total death in percentages
Ischemic heart disease
4.37
Stroke
3.98
Lung cancer
0.39
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
0.89
Table showing the proportion of DALYs for each disorder attributed to air pollution in Nigeria at 2019 for both sexes and all ages[45]
Disease/disorder
Air pollution attributable share of total DALYs in percentages
Ischemic heart disease
1,3
Stroke
1.47
Lung cancer
0.13
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
0.41
Causes
A Yellow Danfo Bus coursing Air Pollution in Lagos State. Nigeria
Nigeria is home to a lot of automobiles including cars, motorbikes, heavy duty vehicles like buses, lorries etc. that are old and past their best days in term of energy efficiency. They emit a lot of unhealthy fumes including nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon dioxides, carbon monoxides, particulate matter etc. A large amount of waste across the country including household and industrial are disposed by combustion which releases fumes from both organic items, synthetic material like plastic, rubber as well as from dangerous items like batteries and e-waste etc. Most households also contribute to emission of noxious smokes and particulate matters like carbon soot etc. as they rely on inefficient kerosene stoves, fire wood and charcoal for cooking and most time this is done indoor with poor ventilation. Many offices and residences contribute to increased pollution level of the air with noxious fumes from generators which are used as substitute to the public epileptic power supply and these fumes are often released in largely unventilated areas. Other major sources including emission from factories and industries which release similar fumes like automobiles but uses mainly diesel in lieu of gasoline.[46]
Road traffic accidents
Every year 1.25 million people are killed in a road traffic crashes.[47] Between 20 and 50 million more people suffer non-fatal injuries, with many incurring a disability. Road traffic injuries cause considerable economic losses to individuals, their families, and to nations as a whole. These losses arise from the cost of treatment as well as lost productivity for those killed or disabled by their injuries, and for family members who need to take time off work or school to care for the injured. Road traffic crashes cost most countries 3% of their gross domestic product. Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death among people aged between 15 and 29 years.[48]
Over 3 400 people die on the world's roads every day and tens of millions of people are injured or disabled every year. Children, pedestrians, cyclists and older people are among the most vulnerable of road users. WHO works with partners - governmental and nongovernmental - around the world to raise the profile of the preventability of road traffic injuries and promote good practice related to addressing key behaviour risk factors – speed, drink-driving, the use of motorcycle helmets, seat-belts and child restraints.[49]
With the continued dangerous trend of road traffic collision in Nigeria, which in 2013 placed it as one of the most road traffic accident-prone countries worldwide (the most in Africa),[50][51] the Nigerian government saw the need to establish the present Federal Road Safety Corps in 1988 to address the carnage on the highways.
Level and trend of road traffic accidents
The Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) says 456 people died and 3404 others were injured in 826 accidents recorded nationwide in January (2018).[52]
The FRSC stated this in its CCC report for January signed by its Corps Marshal, Boboye Oyeyemi.[53]
The UN Sustainable Development Goals
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2022)
In September 2015, the General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Building on the principle of "leaving no one behind", the new Agenda emphasizes a holistic approach to achieving sustainable development for all.[54] Target 3.6 under Sustainable Development Goal 3 is designed specifically to addresses the issue of road traffic accident. It says "By 2020, halve (50% less) the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents".
The Federal Government of Nigeria has put some mechanisms in place to ensure implementation of the SDGs in the country[55] however, Nigeria is still far from achieving this goal.
Traditional/Alternative medicine
A tray of local herbal medicine products and concoctions
As recent reports have shown, in addition to the many benefits there are also risks associated with the different types of Traditional medicine / alternative medicine. Although consumers today have widespread access to various traditional/alternative medicine treatments and therapies, they often do not have enough information on what to check when using them in order to avoid unnecessary harm.[56] While traditional medicine has a lot to contribute to the health and economy, much harm has resulted from unregulated sale and misuse of traditional/alternative medicine and herbs in the country and has significantly delayed patients' seeking professional healthcare.[57]
Climate change
With around 200 million people,[58] Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa. As the continent's main exporter of oil, Nigeria faces the challenge of balancing global energy demands and domestic economic stability with the need to address climate and environmental challenges. The impact of climate change in Nigeria could include rising temperatures, more intense and frequent extreme weather events and sea level rise.[59] For the population, this could result in increased water and food insecurity, higher exposure to heat stress and ultraviolet radiation; changes in infectious and vector-borne disease transmission patterns; and an increased threat to coastal communities facing sea level rise.[59] It is however important to add that[editorializing] adequate adaptation and mitigation could help to protect the population, presenting opportunities for actions towards better health outcomes even in the face of numerous challenges posed by climate change.
The greatest health risk is for illness to result in mortality. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate prevalent diseases as well as emerging ones like High blood pressure, psychosis, neurosis and congenital malformations.[60] Climate change creates overwhelming problems for an already impoverished populace.
Health effects of pollution
Flooding is a consequence of climate change from rise in sea level and poor infrastructure, especially with drainage systems planning and design. For instance, southern Nigeria is highly susceptible to flooding; particularly Lagos, the commercial hub of the country, which is said to be one meter above the sea level,[61] is threatened with possible extinction. The direct health implications of flooding could be deduced to include direct water borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria. These, as we will see in the table below are diseases that already immensely burden the Nigerian populace.
Percentage of Total Deaths and DALYs of common diseases that can be aggravated by flood
Percentage of total deaths
Percentage of DALYs
Malaria
12%
11.16%
Typhoid fever
0.22%
0.24%
Diarreal diseases
11.36%
11.86%
Source: institute for Health Metric and Evaluation (IHME 2019)
The WHO has identified Schistosomiasis, African trypanosomiasis, malaria, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, and leishmaniasis as "major tropical diseases".[62] This is in consideration of their public health significance and economic consequences on afflicted individuals, families and societies. The devastating effects of these diseases are summarized in the words of Hiroshi Nakajima, former Director General, WHO: "beyond their toll of individual illness and death, these tropical diseases have insidious effects on society. They impede on national and individual development, make fertile land inhospitable, impair intellectual and physical growth and exact a huge cost in terms of treatment and control".[63]
Meningitis, measles, chicken pox and other health risks like high blood pressure and dehydration in pregnancy are also believed to be amplified by high temperatures. The number of people in emerging countries is expected to increase by 2.3 billion in 2005 to 4 billion in 2030.[64] This means more carbon emotions due to human activities. Growing urban sprawls, including poor housing also further compounds the problem.[65] These changes inevitably increase the peril heat waves in the cities due to the effects of climate change.
Additionally, high temperature affects diseases spread and rates of transmission of vector-borne and rodent-borne diseases. Temperature affects pathogen maturation rate and mosquito replication, the insect's density in a specific area, and increases infection likelihood.[66] Malaria parasites are recognized to remain sensitive to temperature, particularly throughout the so-called extrinsic period of incubation for parasite lifecycle, which happens once the parasite remains alive in the mosquitos.[66] For example, warmer temperatures promote faster reproductive cycles in mosquitoes that transit malaria and in the parasite itself.[67]
Although Nigeria has identified with the rest of the world in acknowledging climate change and its potential impacts for health and wellbeing, there are still gaps in the planning and implementation of actions to mitigate these effects. The WHO- Climate and Health Country Profile for Nigeria (2015), highlights the successes and shortcomings that characterize the country's climate change response. These include: identifying a national focal point for climate change in the Ministry of Health and the development of a national health adaptation strategy. However, no actions have been implemented towards building institutional and technical capacities to work on climate change and health. Also, Nigeria has climate information included in its Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response system, including development of early warning and response systems for climate-sensitive health risks. Albeit, no activities have been implanted to increase resilience of health infrastructure. Finally, it is important to note that[editorializing] no financial commitments (both domestic and international funds) have been made to implements any action towards health resilience to climate change.[citation needed]
These gaps present opportunities for actions, the implementation of which has potential to better prepare Nigeria as a country to mitigate the health risks that climate change poses to its people. The WHO suggests a comprehensive vulnerability and adaptation assessment with a focus on health that includes relevant stakeholders from all sectors and an estimate of the costs to implement health resilience to climate change, covering infrastructure as well as institutional and technical capacities. Furthermore, actions need to be taken, that will ensure greening of the health sector, such as promoting the use of renewable energy, and finally, conducting a valuation of the co-benefits to health of climate mitigation policies. This will, among other benefits, help to monitor progress.[editorializing]
Health in China is a complex and multifaceted issue that encompasses a wide range of factors, including public health policy, healthcare infrastructure, environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and socioeconomic conditions.Although China has made significant progress in improving public health and life expectancy, many challenges remain, including air pollution, food safety concerns, a growing burden of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and an aging population. In order to improve the situation, the Chinese Government has adopted a series of health policies and initiatives, such as the Healthy China 2030 program, investment in the development of primary health-care facilities and the implementation of public health campaigns.
Health in Uganda refers to the health of the population of Uganda. The average life expectancy at birth of Uganda has increased from 59.9 years in 2013 to 63.4 years in 2019. This is lower than in any other country in the East African Community except Burundi. As of 2017, females had a life expectancy higher than their male counterparts of 69.2 versus 62.3. It is projected that by 2100, males in Uganda will have an expectancy of 74.5 and females 83.3. Uganda's population has steadily increased from 36.56 million in 2016 to an estimate of 42.46 in 2021. The fertility rate of Ugandan women slightly increased from an average of 6.89 babies per woman in the 1950s to about 7.12 in the 1970s before declining to an estimate 5.32 babies in 2019. This figure is higher than most world regions including South East Asia, Middle East and North Africa, Europe and Central Asia and America. The under-5-mortality-rate for Uganda has decreased from 191 deaths per 1000 live births in 1970 to 45.8 deaths per 1000 live births in 2019.
India's population in 2021 as per World Bank is 1.39 billion. Being the world's most populous country and one of its fastest-growing economies, India experiences both challenges and opportunities in context of public health. India is a hub for pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries; world-class scientists, clinical trials and hospitals yet country faces daunting public health challenges like child undernutrition, high rates of neonatal and maternal mortality, growth in noncommunicable diseases, high rates of road traffic accidents and other health related issues.
Diseases of poverty, also known as poverty-related diseases, are diseases that are more prevalent in low-income populations. They include infectious diseases, as well as diseases related to malnutrition and poor health behaviour. Poverty is one of the major social determinants of health. The World Health Report (2002) states that diseases of poverty account for 45% of the disease burden in the countries with high poverty rate which are preventable or treatable with existing interventions. Diseases of poverty are often co-morbid and ubiquitous with malnutrition. Poverty increases the chances of having these diseases as the deprivation of shelter, safe drinking water, nutritious food, sanitation, and access to health services contributes towards poor health behaviour. At the same time, these diseases act as a barrier for economic growth to affected people and families caring for them which in turn results into increased poverty in the community. These diseases produced in part by poverty are in contrast to diseases of affluence, which are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society.
Disease burden is the impact of a health problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Both of these metrics quantify the number of years lost due to disability (YLDs), sometimes also known as years lost due to disease or years lived with disability/disease. One DALY can be thought of as one year of healthy life lost, and the overall disease burden can be thought of as a measure of the gap between current health status and the ideal health status. According to an article published in The Lancet in June 2015, low back pain and major depressive disorder were among the top ten causes of YLDs and were the cause of more health loss than diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma combined. The study based on data from 188 countries, considered to be the largest and most detailed analysis to quantify levels, patterns, and trends in ill health and disability, concluded that "the proportion of disability-adjusted life years due to YLDs increased globally from 21.1% in 1990 to 31.2% in 2013." The environmental burden of disease is defined as the number of DALYs that can be attributed to environmental factors. Similarly, the work-related burden of disease is defined as the number of deaths and DALYs that can be attributed to occupational risk factors to human health. These measures allow for comparison of disease burdens, and have also been used to forecast the possible impacts of health interventions. By 2014, DALYs per head were "40% higher in low-income and middle-income regions."
The fundaments of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) were established in the Brazilian Constitution of 1988, under the principles of universality, integrality and equity. It has a decentralized operational and management system, and social participation is present in all administrative levels. The Brazilian health system is a complex composition of public sector (SUS), private health institutions and private insurances. Since the creation of SUS, Brazil has significantly improved in many health indicators, but a lot needs to be done in order to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC).
Available healthcare and health status in Sierra Leone is rated very poorly. Globally, infant and maternal mortality rates remain among the highest. The major causes of illness within the country are preventable with modern technology and medical advances. Most deaths within the country are attributed to nutritional deficiencies, lack of access to clean water, pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, anemia, malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS.
Health in Ethiopia has improved markedly since the early 2000s, with government leadership playing a key role in mobilizing resources and ensuring that they are used effectively. A central feature of the sector is the priority given to the Health Extension Programme, which delivers cost-effective basic services that enhance equity and provide care to millions of women, men and children. The development and delivery of the Health Extension Program, and its lasting success, is an example of how a low-income country can still improve access to health services with creativity and dedication.
Health in Indonesia is affected by a number of factors. Indonesia has over 26,000 health care facilities; 2,000 hospitals, 9,000 community health centres and private clinics, 1,100 dentist clinics and 1,000 opticians. The country lacks doctors with only 0.4 doctors per 1,000 population. In 2018, Indonesia's healthcare spending was US$38.3 billion, 4.18% of their GDP, and is expected to rise to US$51 billion in 2020.
Tropical diseases, especially malaria and tuberculosis, have long been a public health problem in Kenya. In recent years, infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), also has become a severe problem. Estimates of the incidence of infection differ widely.
Sudan is still one of the largest countries in Africa, even after the split of the Northern and Southern parts. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the region and is home to over 37.9 million people.
Niger is a landlocked country located in West Africa and has Libya, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Algeria as its neighboring countries. Niger was French territory that got its independence in 1960 and its official language is French. Niger has an area of 1.267 million square kilometres, nevertheless, 80% of its land area spreads through the Sahara Desert.
The quality of health in Cambodia is rising along with its growing economy. The public health care system has a high priority from the Cambodian government and with international help and assistance, Cambodia has seen some major and continuous improvements in the health profile of its population since the 1980s, with a steadily rising life expectancy.
Bangladesh is one of the most populous countries in the world, as well as having one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Consequently, Bangladesh faces challenges and opportunities in regards to public health. A remarkable metamorphosis has unfolded in Bangladesh, encompassing the demographic, health, and nutritional dimensions of its populace.
The current population of Myanmar is 54.05 million. It was 27.27 million in 1970. The general state of healthcare in Myanmar is poor. The military government of 1962-2011 spent anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on healthcare. Healthcare in Myanmar is consistently ranked among the lowest in the world. In 2015, in congruence with a new democratic government, a series of healthcare reforms were enacted. In 2017, the reformed government spent 5.2% of GDP on healthcare expenditures. Health indicators have begun to improve as spending continues to increase. Patients continue to pay the majority of healthcare costs out of pocket. Although, out of pocket costs were reduced from 85% to 62% from 2014 to 2015. They continue to drop annually. The global average of healthcare costs paid out of pocket is 32%. Both public and private hospitals are understaffed due to a national shortage of doctors and nurses. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. WHO consistently ranks Myanmar among the worst nations in healthcare.
Botswana's healthcare system has been steadily improving and expanding its infrastructure to become more accessible. The country's position as an upper middle-income country has allowed them to make strides in universal healthcare access for much of Botswana's population. The majority of the Botswana's 2.3 million inhabitants now live within five kilometres of a healthcare facility. As a result, the infant mortality and maternal mortality rates have been on a steady decline. The country's improving healthcare infrastructure has also been reflected in an increase of the average life expectancy from birth, with nearly all births occurring in healthcare facilities.
Health in South Africa touches on various aspects of health including the infectious diseases, Nutrition, Mental Health and Maternal care.
Zambia is a landlocked country in Sub Saharan Africa which experiences a burden of both communicable and non-communicable diseases. In line with WHO agenda for equity in health, it has adopted the Universal Health Coverage agenda to mitigate the challenges faced within the health sector. The Ministry of Health (MOH) provides information pertaining to Zambian health. The main focus of the Ministry of Health has been provision of uninterrupted care with emphasis on health systems strengthening and services via the primary health care approach.
Sustainable Development Goal 3, regarding "Good Health and Well-being", is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. The official wording is: "To ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages." The targets of SDG 3 focus on various aspects of healthy life and healthy lifestyle. Progress towards the targets is measured using twenty-one indicators.
↑ Iyioha, Irehobhude O. (2 November 2015). Comparative health law and policy: critical perspectives on Nigerian and global health law. Taylor and Francis. ISBN978-1-4724-3675-7.
↑ Adeogun, Aina O.; Ibor, Oju R.; Adeduntan, Sherifat D.; Arukwe, Augustine (May 2016). "Corrigendum to "Intersex and alterations in reproductive development of a cichlid, Tilapia guineensis, from a municipal domestic water supply lake (Eleyele) in Southwestern Nigeria" [Sci. Total Environ. 541 (2016) 372–382]". Science of the Total Environment. 551–552: 752. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.551..752A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.069. ISSN0048-9697.
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