Lassa fever

Last updated

Lassa fever
Other namesLassa hemorrhagic fever
LassaBoy.png
Community education material for Lassa fever
Specialty Infectious disease
Symptoms Fever, headaches, bleeding [1]
Complications Partial or complete, temporary or permanent hearing loss [1]
Usual onset1–3 weeks following exposure [1]
Causes Lassa virus [1]
Risk factors Exposure to rodents in West Africa [1]
Diagnostic method Laboratory testing [1]
Differential diagnosis Ebola, malaria, typhoid fever [1]
TreatmentSupportive [1]
Prognosis ~1% risk of death with treatment [1]
Frequency400,000 cases per year [2]
Deaths5,000 deaths per year [2]

Lassa fever, also known as Lassa hemorrhagic fever, is a type of viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the Lassa virus. [1] Many of those infected by the virus do not develop symptoms. [1] When symptoms occur they typically include fever, weakness, headaches, vomiting, and muscle pains. [1] Less commonly there may be bleeding from the mouth or gastrointestinal tract. [1] The risk of death once infected is about one percent and frequently occurs within two weeks of the onset of symptoms. [1] Of those who survive, about a quarter have hearing loss, which improves within three months in about half of these cases. [1] [3] [4]

Contents

The disease is usually initially spread to people via contact with the urine or feces of an infected multimammate mouse. [1] Spread can then occur via direct contact between people. [1] [5] Diagnosis based on symptoms is difficult. [1] Confirmation is by laboratory testing to detect the virus's RNA, antibodies for the virus, or the virus itself in cell culture. [1] Other conditions that may present similarly include Ebola, malaria, typhoid fever, and yellow fever. [1] The Lassa virus is a member of the Arenaviridae family of viruses. [1]

There is no vaccine. [6] Prevention requires isolating those who are infected and decreasing contact with the mice. [1] Other efforts to control the spread of disease include having a cat to hunt vermin, and storing food in sealed containers. [1] Treatment is directed at addressing dehydration and improving symptoms. [1] The antiviral medication ribavirin has been recommended, [1] but evidence to support its use is weak. [7] [8]

Descriptions of the disease date from the 1950s. [1] The virus was first described in 1969 from a case in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria. [1] [9] Lassa fever is relatively common in West Africa including the countries of Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ghana. [1] [2] There are about 300,000 to 500,000 cases which result in 5,000 deaths a year. [2] [10]

Signs and symptoms

Onset of symptoms is typically 7 to 21 days after exposure. [11] In 80% of those who are infected few or no symptoms occur. [11] [12] These mild symptoms may include fever, tiredness, weakness, and headache. [11] In 20% of people more severe symptoms such as bleeding gums, breathing problems, vomiting, chest pain, or dangerously low blood pressure may occur. [11] Long term complications may include hearing loss. [11] In those who are pregnant, miscarriage may occur in 95% of child-bearing females . [11] Lassa fever can be difficult to distinguish clinically from other viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola virus disease. [1] A combination of pharyngitis, pain behind the sternum, presence of excess protein in the urine and fever can indicate Lassa fever with higher specificity. [13] [3]

In cases in which death occurs, this typically occurs within 14 days of onset. [11] About 1% of all Lassa virus infections result in death. [11] Approximately 15%-20% of those who have required hospitalization for Lassa fever die. [11] The risk of death is greater in those who are pregnant. [11] A "Swollen baby syndrome" may occur in newborns, infants and toddlers with pitting edema, abdominal distension and bleeding. [14]

Cause

Virology

A transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a number of Lassa virus virions adjacent to some cell debris. Lassa virus.JPG
A transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a number of Lassa virus virions adjacent to some cell debris.

Lassa virus is a member of the Arenaviridae, a family of negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses. [15] Specifically it is an old world arenavirus, which is enveloped, single-stranded, and bi-segmented RNA. Lassa virus contains both a large and a small genome section, with seven lineages identified to date: Lineages I, II, and III from Nigeria; [16] Lineage IV from Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia; [17] Lineage V from Cote D’Ivoire and Mali [17] Lineage VI from Togo; [18] and Lineage VII from Benin. [19]

Spread

Mastomys natalensis, the natural reservoir of the Lassa fever virus Mastomys natalensis.jpg
Mastomys natalensis, the natural reservoir of the Lassa fever virus

Lassa virus commonly spreads to humans from other animals, specifically the Natal multimammate mouse or African rat, also called the Natal multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis). [20] This is probably the most common mouse in equatorial Africa, common in human households and eaten as a delicacy in some areas. [20] [21]

The multimammate mouse can quickly produce a large number of offspring, tends to colonize human settlements, increasing the risk of rodent-human contact, and is found throughout the west, central and eastern parts of the African continent. [22]

Once the mouse has become a carrier, it will excrete the virus throughout the rest of its lifetime through feces and urine creating ample opportunity for exposure. [22] The virus is probably transmitted by contact with the feces or urine of animals accessing grain stores in residences. [21] No study has proven presence in breast milk, but the high level of viremia suggests it may be possible. [14]

Individuals who are at a higher risk of contracting the infection are those who live in rural areas where Mastomys are discovered, and where sanitation is not prevalent. Infection typically occurs by direct or indirect exposure to animal excrement through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts. Inhalation of tiny particles of infectious material (aerosol) is believed to be the most significant means of exposure. It is possible to acquire the infection through broken skin or mucous membranes that are directly exposed to infectious material. Transmission from person to person has been established, presenting a disease risk for healthcare workers. The virus is present in urine for between three and nine weeks after infection, and it can be transmitted in semen for up to three months after becoming infected. [20] [23] [24]

Diagnosis

Liberian laboratory technicians in personal protective equipment preparing to test Lassa fever samples. 454277-Q-GYI14-255(1).jpg
Liberian laboratory technicians in personal protective equipment preparing to test Lassa fever samples.

A range of laboratory investigations are performed, where possible, to diagnose the disease and assess its course and complications. The confidence of a diagnosis can be compromised if laboratory tests are not available. One comprising factor is the number of febrile illnesses present in Africa, such as malaria or typhoid fever that could potentially exhibit similar symptoms, particularly for non-specific manifestations of Lassa fever. [15] In cases with abdominal pain, in countries where Lassa is common, Lassa fever is often misdiagnosed as appendicitis and intussusception which delays treatment with the antiviral ribavirin. [25] In West Africa, where Lassa is most common, it is difficult to diagnose due to the absence of proper equipment to perform testing. [26]

The United States FDA has yet to approve a widely validated laboratory test for Lassa, but there are tests that have been able to provide definitive proof of the presence of the LASV virus. [15] These tests include cell cultures, PCR, ELISA antigen assays, plaque neutralization assays, and immunofluorescence essays. However, immunofluorescence essays provide less definitive proof of Lassa infection. [15] An ELISA test for antigen and Immunoglobulin M antibodies give 88% sensitivity and 90% specificity for the presence of the infection. Other laboratory findings in Lassa fever include lymphocytopenia (low lymphocyte white blood cell count), thrombocytopenia (low platelets), and elevated aspartate transaminase levels in the blood. Lassa fever virus can also be found in cerebrospinal fluid. [27]

Prevention

Community education material for Lassa fever LassaRat.png
Community education material for Lassa fever

Control of the Mastomys rodent population is impractical, so measures focus on keeping rodents out of homes and food supplies, encouraging effective personal hygiene, storing grain and other foodstuffs in rodent-proof containers, and disposing of garbage far from the home to help sustain clean households. [28] Gloves, masks, laboratory coats, and goggles are advised while in contact with an infected person, to avoid contact with blood and body fluids. [29] These issues in many countries are monitored by a department of public health. In less developed countries, these types of organizations may not have the necessary means to effectively control outbreaks. [30]

Vaccine

There is no vaccine for humans as of 2023. [31] Researchers at the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases facility had a promising vaccine candidate in 2002. [32] They have developed a replication-competent vaccine against Lassa virus based on recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vectors expressing the Lassa virus glycoprotein. After a single intramuscular injection, test primates have survived lethal challenge, while showing no clinical symptoms. [33]

Treatment

Treatment is directed at addressing dehydration and improving symptoms. [1]

Medications

The antiviral medication ribavirin has been recommended, [1] [34] but evidence to support its use is weak. [7] Some evidence has found that it may worsen outcomes in certain cases. [7] Fluid replacement, blood transfusions, and medication for low blood pressure may be required. Intravenous interferon therapy has also been used. [35] [36]

Pregnancy

When Lassa fever infects pregnant women late in their third trimester, inducing delivery is necessary for the mother to have a good chance of survival. [37] This is because the virus has an affinity for the placenta and other highly vascular tissues. The fetus has only a one in ten chance of survival no matter what course of action is taken; hence, the focus is always on saving the life of the mother. [38] [39]

Prognosis

About 15–20% of hospitalized people with Lassa fever will die from the illness. The overall case fatality rate is estimated to be 1%, but during epidemics, mortality can climb as high as 50%. The mortality rate is greater than 80% when it occurs in pregnant women during their third trimester; fetal death also occurs in nearly all those cases. Abortion decreases the risk of death to the mother. [40] Some survivors experience lasting effects of the disease, [41] and can include partial or complete deafness. [1]

Because of treatment with ribavirin, fatality rates have declined. [42] [43]

Epidemiology

Lassa fever distribution. Countries reporting continued spread of disease and outbreaks in blue. Countries reporting a few cases, periodic isolation of virus, or serological evidence of infection in green. Countries with unknown status in grey. Lassa fever Outbreak Distribution Map.svg
Lassa fever distribution. Countries reporting continued spread of disease and outbreaks in blue. Countries reporting a few cases, periodic isolation of virus, or serological evidence of infection in green. Countries with unknown status in grey.

There are about 300,000 to 500,000 cases which result in 5,000 deaths a year. [2] [10] One estimate places [45] the number as high as 3 million cases per year. [22]

Estimates of Lassa fever are complicated by the lack of easy-available diagnosis, limited public health surveillance infrastructure, and high clustering of incidence near high intensity sampling. [15]

The infection affects females 1.2 times more than males. The age group predominantly infected is 21–30 years. [46]

Geography

Lassa high risk areas are near the western and eastern extremes of West Africa. As of 2018, the Lassa belt includes Guinea, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Liberia. [14] As of 2003, 10-16% of people in Sierra Leone and Liberia admitted to hospital had the virus. [20] The case fatality rate for those who are hospitalized for the disease is about 15-20%. Research showed a twofold increase risk of infection for those living in close proximity to someone with infection symptoms within the last year.[ citation needed ]

The high risk areas cannot be well defined by any known biogeographical or environmental breaks except for the multimammate rat, particularly Guinea (Kindia, Faranah and Nzérékoré regions), Liberia (mostly in Lofa, Bong, and Nimba counties), Nigeria (in about 10 of 36 states) and Sierra Leone (typically from Kenema and Kailahun districts). It is less common in the Central African Republic, Mali, Senegal and other nearby countries, and less common yet in Ghana and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Benin had its first confirmed cases in 2014, and Togo had its first confirmed cases in 2016. [23]

As of 2013, the spread of Lassa outside of West Africa had been very limited. Twenty to thirty cases had been described in Europe, as being caused by importation through infected individuals. [22] These cases found outside of West Africa were found to have a high fatality risk because of the delay of diagnosis and treatment due to being unaware of the risk associated with the symptoms. [22] Imported cases have not manifested in larger epidemics outside of Africa due to a lack of human to human transmission in hospital settings. An exception had occurred in 2003 when a healthcare worker became infected before the person showed clear symptoms. [22]

In October 2024, a resident of Iowa, United States has passed away due to Lassa fever following a trip to West Africa, as reported by the Iowa Department of Health and Human Services. [47] Health officials indicate the person likely contracted Lassa fever—transmissible through contact with infected body fluids or, potentially, with rodents while abroad, according to guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [48]

Nigeria

2018 outbreak

An outbreak of Lassa fever occurred in Nigeria during 2018 and spread to 18 of the country's states; it was the largest outbreak of Lassa recorded. [49] [50] [51] On 25 February 2018, there were 1081 suspected cases and 90 reported deaths; 317 of the cases and 72 deaths were confirmed as Lassa which increased to a total of 431 reported cases in 2018. [52]

2019 outbreak

The total cases in Nigeria in 2019 was 810 with 167 deaths, the largest case fatality rate (23.3%) until then. [53] [54]

2020 outbreak

The epidemic started from the second week of the January. By the tenth week the total number of cases has risen to 855 and deaths to 144, the case fatality rate of 16.8%. [54]

2021 outbreak

On the 8th of December 2021, the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) was notified of the death of two persons from Lassa fever. [55]

2022 outbreak

The epidemic took a new form, from 3 to 30 January 2022, 211 laboratory confirmed Lassa fever cases including 40 deaths (case fatality ratio: 19%) have been cumulatively reported in 14 of the 36 Nigerian states and the Federal Capital Territory across the country. [56] In total from January until March, 132 deaths have been reported with a case fatality rate (CFR) of 19.1% which is lower than the CFR for the same period in 2021 (21.0%). [57]

2024 outbreak

In October 2024, a resident of Iowa, United States, died from Lassa fever after traveling to West Africa. This case, confirmed by the Iowa Department of Health and Human Services, underscores the risk of international spread. The individual likely contracted the virus abroad, as Lassa fever spreads through infected rodent excreta or bodily fluids. Health authorities are monitoring close contacts to prevent further transmission. [58] [59] [60]

Liberia

Lassa fever is endemic in Liberia. From 1 January 2017 through 23 January 2018, 91 suspected cases were reported from six counties: Bong, Grand Bassa, Grand Kru, Lofa, Margibi, and Nimba. Thirty-three of these cases were laboratory confirmed, including 15 deaths (case fatality rate for confirmed cases = 45.4%). [61]

In February 2020, a total of 24 confirmed cases with nine associated deaths has been reported from nine health districts in six counties. Grand Bossa and Bong counties account for 20 of the confirmed cases. [62]

History

The disease was identified in Nigeria in 1969. [22] It is named after the town of Lassa, where it was discovered. [22]

A prominent expert in the disease, Aniru Conteh, died from the disease. [63]

Research

The Lassa virus is one of several viruses identified by WHO as a likely cause of a future epidemic. They therefore list it for urgent research and development to develop new diagnostic tests, vaccines, and medicines. [64] [65]

In 2007, SIGA Technologies, studied a medication in guinea pig with Lassa fever. [66] Work on a vaccine is continuing, with multiple approaches showing positive results in animal trials. [67]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow fever</span> Viral disease

Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains—particularly in the back—and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin. If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dengue fever</span> Mosquito-borne disease

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue virus, prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. It is frequently asymptomatic; if symptoms appear they typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. These may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue with bleeding, low levels of blood platelets, blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marburg virus disease</span> Human viral disease

Marburg virus disease (MVD), formerly Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) is a viral hemorrhagic fever in human and non-human primates caused by either of the two Marburgviruses: Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV). Its clinical symptoms are very similar to those of Ebola virus disease (EVD).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mpox</span> Viral disease of humans and animals

Mpox is an infectious viral disease that can occur in humans and other animals. Symptoms include a rash that forms blisters and then crusts over, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. The illness is usually mild, and most infected individuals recover within a few weeks without treatment. The time from exposure to the onset of symptoms ranges from three to seventeen days, and symptoms typically last from two to four weeks. However, cases may be severe, especially in children, pregnant women, or people with suppressed immune systems.

<i>Lassa mammarenavirus</i> Type of viral hemorrhagic fever

Lassa mammarenavirus (LASV) is an arenavirus that causes Lassa hemorrhagic fever, a type of viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF), in humans and other primates. Lassa mammarenavirus is an emerging virus and a select agent, requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment. It is endemic in West African countries, especially Sierra Leone, the Republic of Guinea, Nigeria, and Liberia, where the annual incidence of infection is between 300,000 and 500,000 cases, resulting in 5,000 deaths per year.

<i>Nipah virus</i> Species of virus

Nipah virus is a bat-borne, zoonotic virus that causes Nipah virus infection in humans and other animals, a disease with a very high mortality rate (40-75%). Numerous disease outbreaks caused by Nipah virus have occurred in South East Africa and Southeast Asia. Nipah virus belongs to the genus Henipavirus along with the Hendra virus, which has also caused disease outbreaks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arenavirus</span> Family of RNA viruses

An arenavirus is a bi- or trisegmented ambisense RNA virus that is a member of the family Arenaviridae. These viruses infect rodents and occasionally humans. A class of novel, highly divergent arenaviruses, properly known as reptarenaviruses, have also been discovered which infect snakes to produce inclusion body disease, mostly in boa constrictors. At least eight arenaviruses are known to cause human disease. The diseases derived from arenaviruses range in severity. Aseptic meningitis, a severe human disease that causes inflammation covering the brain and spinal cord, can arise from the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Hemorrhagic fever syndromes, including Lassa fever, are derived from infections such as Guanarito virus, Junin virus, Lassa virus, Lujo virus, Machupo virus, Sabia virus, or Whitewater Arroyo virus. Because of the epidemiological association with rodents, some arenaviruses and bunyaviruses are designated as roboviruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral hemorrhagic fever</span> Type of illnesses

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are a diverse group of animal and human illnesses. VHFs may be caused by five distinct families of RNA viruses: the families Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Rhabdoviridae, and several member families of the Bunyavirales order such as Arenaviridae, and Hantaviridae. All types of VHF are characterized by fever and bleeding disorders and all can progress to high fever, shock and death in many cases. Some of the VHF agents cause relatively mild illnesses, such as the Scandinavian nephropathia epidemica, while others, such as Ebola virus, can cause severe, life-threatening disease.

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) is a rodent-borne viral infectious disease that presents as aseptic meningitis, encephalitis or meningoencephalitis. Its causative agent is lymphocytic choriomeningitis mammarenavirus (LCMV), a member of the family Arenaviridae. The name was coined by Charles Armstrong in 1934.

Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever (VHF) is a zoonotic human illness first identified in 1989. The disease is most prevalent in several rural areas of central Venezuela and is caused by Guanarito mammarenavirus (GTOV) which belongs to the Arenaviridae family. The short-tailed cane mouse is the main host for GTOV which is spread mostly by inhalation of aerosolized droplets of saliva, respiratory secretions, urine, or blood from infected rodents. Person-to-person spread is possible, but uncommon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever</span> Disease of humans and other animals

Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a viral disease. Symptoms of CCHF may include fever, muscle pains, headache, vomiting due to loss of net saline of basal cells, diarrhea, and bleeding into the skin. Onset of symptoms is less than two weeks following exposure. Complications may include liver failure. Survivors generally recover around two weeks after onset.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oropouche fever</span> Medical condition

Oropouche fever is a tropical viral infection which can infect humans. It is transmitted by biting midges and mosquitoes, from a natural reservoir which includes sloths, non-human primates, and birds. The disease is named after the region where it was first discovered and isolated in 1955, by the Oropouche River in Trinidad and Tobago. Oropouche fever is caused by the Oropouche virus (OROV), of the Bunyavirales order of viruses.

Lujo is a bisegmented RNA virus—a member of the family Arenaviridae—and a known cause of viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) in humans. Its name was suggested by the Special Pathogens Unit of the National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service (NICD-NHLS) by using the first two letters of the names of the cities involved in the 2008 outbreak of the disease, Lusaka (Zambia) and Johannesburg. It is the second pathogenic Arenavirus to be described from the African continent—the first being Lassa virus—and since 2012 has been classed as a "Select Agent" under U.S. law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aniru Conteh</span> Sierra Leonean physician (1942–2004)

Aniru Sahib Sahib Conteh was a Sierra Leonean physician and expert on the clinical treatment of Lassa fever, a viral hemorrhagic fever endemic to West Africa caused by the Lassa virus. Conteh studied medicine at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria and taught at Ibadan Teaching Hospital. He later returned to Sierra Leone where he joined the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Lassa fever program at Nixon Methodist Hospital in Segbwema, first as superintendent and then as clinical director.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monkeypox virus</span> Species of double-stranded DNA virus

The monkeypox virus is a species of double-stranded DNA virus that causes mpox disease in humans and other mammals. It is a zoonotic virus belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus, making it closely related to the variola, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses. MPV is oval, with a lipoprotein outer membrane. The genome is approximately 190 kb. Smallpox and monkeypox viruses are both orthopoxviruses, and the smallpox vaccine is effective against mpox if given within 3–5 years before the disease is contracted. Symptoms of mpox in humans include a rash that forms blisters and then crusts over, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. The virus is transmissible between animals and humans by direct contact to the lesions or bodily fluids. The virus was given the name monkeypox virus after being isolated from monkeys, but most of the carriers of this virus are smaller mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ebola</span> Viral hemorrhagic fever of humans and other primates caused by ebolaviruses

Ebola, also known as Ebola virus disease (EVD) and Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF), is a viral hemorrhagic fever in humans and other primates, caused by ebolaviruses. Symptoms typically start anywhere between two days and three weeks after infection. The first symptoms are usually fever, sore throat, muscle pain, and headaches. These are usually followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, rash and decreased liver and kidney function, at which point some people begin to bleed both internally and externally. It kills between 25% and 90% of those infected – about 50% on average. Death is often due to shock from fluid loss, and typically occurs between six and 16 days after the first symptoms appear. Early treatment of symptoms increases the survival rate considerably compared to late start. An Ebola vaccine was approved by the US FDA in December 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nipah virus infection</span> Disease caused by Nipah virus

Nipah virus infection is an infection caused by the Nipah virus. Symptoms from infection vary from none to fever, cough, headache, shortness of breath, and confusion. This may worsen into a coma over a day or two, and 50% to 75% of those infected die. Complications can include inflammation of the brain and seizures following recovery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2022–2023 mpox outbreak in Mexico</span> Ongoing viral outbreak

The 2022–2023 mpox outbreak in Mexico is part of the larger outbreak of human mpox caused by the West African clade of the monkeypox virus. Mexico is the twenty-fourth country outside of Africa to experience an endemic mpox outbreak. The first case was reported in Mexico City, Mexico, on May 28, 2022. As of December 8th 2022, Mexico had confirmed a total of 3455 cases in all 32 states and 4 deaths.

The 2022–2023 mpox outbreak in Ghana is a part of the larger outbreak of human mpox caused by the West African clade of the monkeypox virus. As opposed to its West African neighbours, Ghana had no endemic presence of mpox, only experiencing it during the 2022 outbreak. The first 5 cases of mpox in Ghana was detected on June 8, 2022.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 "Lassa fever". WHO. March 2016. Archived from the original on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Ogbu O, Ajuluchukwu E, Uneke CJ (2007). "Lassa fever in West African sub-region: an overview". Journal of Vector Borne Diseases. 44 (1): 1–11. PMID   17378212. Lassa fever is endemic in West Africa.
  3. 1 2 "Lassa fever". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 22 November 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  4. ↑ "Lassa Fever | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 4 March 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  5. ↑ Asogun DA, Günther S, Akpede GO, Ihekweazu C, Zumla A (December 2019). "Lassa fever: epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, management and prevention" (PDF). Infectious Disease Clinics. 33 (4): 933–951. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2019.08.002. PMID   31668199. S2CID   204969863. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  6. ↑ Yun NE, Walker DH (2012). "Pathogenesis of Lassa Fever". Viruses. 4 (12): 2031–2048. doi: 10.3390/v4102031 . PMC   3497040 . PMID   23202452.
  7. 1 2 3 Eberhardt KA, Mischlinger J, Jordan S, Groger M, Günther S, Ramharter M (October 2019). "Ribavirin for the treatment of Lassa fever: A systematic review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 87: 15–20. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.07.015 . PMID   31357056.
  8. ↑ Salam A, Cheng V, Edwards T, Olliaro P, Sterne J, Horby P (July 2021). "Time to reconsider the role of ribavirin in Lassa fever". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 15 (7): e0009522. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009522 . PMC   8266111 . PMID   34237063.
  9. ↑ Frame JD, Baldwin JM, Gocke DJ, Troup JM (1 July 1970). "Lassa fever, a new virus disease of man from West Africa. I. Clinical description and pathological findings". Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 19 (4): 670–6. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1970.19.670. PMID   4246571.
  10. 1 2 Houlihan C, Behrens R (12 July 2017). "Lassa fever". BMJ. 358: j2986. doi:10.1136/bmj.j2986. PMID   28701331. S2CID   206916006.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Signs and Symptoms | Lassa Fever | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 6 March 2019. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  12. ↑ Greenky D, Knust B, Dziuban EJ (May 2018). "What Pediatricians Should Know About Lassa Virus". JAMA Pediatrics. 172 (5): 407–408. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.5223. PMC   5970952 . PMID   29507948.
  13. ↑ McCormick JB, King IJ, Webb PA, Johnson KM, O'Sullivan R, Smith ES, Trippel S, Tong TC (March 1987). "A Case-Control Study of the Clinical Diagnosis and Course of Lassa Fever". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 155 (3): 445–455. doi:10.1093/infdis/155.3.445. PMID   3805772.
  14. 1 2 3 David Greenky, Barbara Knust, Eric J. Dziuban (2018). "What Pediatricians Should Know About Lassa Virus". JAMA Pediatrics . 172 (5): 407–408. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.5223. PMC   5970952 . PMID   29507948.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Peterson AT, Moses LM, Bausch DG (8 August 2014). "Mapping Transmission Risk of Lassa Fever in West Africa: The Importance of Quality Control, Sampling Bias, and Error Weighting". PLOS ONE. 9 (8): e100711. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j0711P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100711 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4126660 . PMID   25105746.
  16. ↑ Bowen MD, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Hustad HL, Bausch DG, Demby AH, Bajani MD, Peters CJ, Nichol ST (August 2000). "Genetic diversity among Lassa virus strains". Journal of Virology. 74 (15): 6992–7004. doi:10.1128/jvi.74.15.6992-7004.2000. ISSN   0022-538X. PMC   112216 . PMID   10888638.
  17. 1 2 Wiley MR, Fakoli L, Letizia AG, Welch SR, Ladner JT, Prieto K, Reyes D, Espy N, Chitty JA, Pratt CB, Di Paola N, Taweh F, Williams D, Saindon J, Davis WG (December 2019). "Lassa virus circulating in Liberia: a retrospective genomic characterisation". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 19 (12): 1371–1378. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30486-4 . ISSN   1474-4457. PMID   31588039.
  18. ↑ Whitmer SL, Strecker T, Cadar D, Dienes HP, Faber K, Patel K, Brown SM, Davis WG, Klena JD, Rollin PE, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Fichet-Calvet E, Noack B, Emmerich P, Rieger T (March 2018). "New Lineage of Lassa Virus, Togo, 2016". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 24 (3): 599–602. doi:10.3201/eid2403.171905. ISSN   1080-6059. PMC   5823357 . PMID   29460758.
  19. ↑ Mateo M, Hortion J, Perthame E, Picard C, Reynard S, Journeaux A, Germain C, Carnec X, Baillet N, Borges-Cardoso V, Pietrosemoli N, Vallve A, Barron S, Jourjon O, Lacroix O (December 2022). "Pathogenesis of recent Lassa virus isolates from lineages II and VII in cynomolgus monkeys". Virulence. 13 (1): 654–669. doi:10.1080/21505594.2022.2060170. ISSN   2150-5608. PMC   9037461 . PMID   35437094.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Richmond JK, Baglole DJ (2003). "Lassa fever: Epidemiology, clinical features, and social consequences". BMJ. 327 (7426): 1271–1275. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7426.1271. PMC   286250 . PMID   14644972.
  21. 1 2 Werner D, ed. (2004). Biological Resources and Migration. Springer. p. 363. ISBN   978-3-540-21470-0.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Goeijenbier M, Wagenaar J, Goris M, Martina B, Henttonen H, Vaheri A, Reusken C, Hartskeerl R, Osterhaus A, Van Gorp E (7 June 2012). "Rodent-borne hemorrhagic fevers: under-recognized, widely spread and preventable – epidemiology, diagnostics and treatment". Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 39 (1): 26–42. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2012.686481. PMID   22670688. S2CID   31217913.[ permanent dead link ]
  23. 1 2 "Lassa fever: origins, reservoirs, transmission and guidelines". Public Health England. 5 September 2014. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
  24. ↑ "Lassa fever". Media Centre Fact Sheet No 179. World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  25. ↑ Dongo AE, Kesieme EB, Iyamu CE, Okokhere PO, Akhuemokhan OC, Akpede GO (2013). "Lassa fever presenting as acute abdomen: a case series". Virology Journal. 10: 124. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-10-123 . PMC   3639802 . PMID   23597024.
  26. ↑ Asogun DA, Adomeh DI, Ehimuan J, Odia I, Hass M, Gabriel M, Olschläger S, Becker-Ziaja B, Folarin O, Phelan E, Ehiane PE, Ifeh VE, Uyigue EA, Oladapo YT, Muoebonam EB, Osunde O, Dongo A, Okokhere PO, Okogbenin SA, Momoh M, Alikah SO, Akhuemokhan OC, Imomeh P, Odike MA, Gire S, Andersen K, Sabeti PC, Happi CT, Akpede GO, Günther S (2012). Bausch DG (ed.). "Molecular Diagnostics for Lassa Fever at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Nigeria: Lessons Learnt from Two Years of Laboratory Operation". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 6 (9): e1839. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001839 . PMC   3459880 . PMID   23029594.
  27. ↑ Günther S, Weisner B, Roth A, Grewing T, Asper M, Drosten C, Emmerich P, Petersen J, Wilczek M, Schmitz H (2001). "Lassa Fever Encephalopathy: Lassa Virus in Cerebrospinal Fluid but Not in Serum". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 184 (3): 345–349. doi: 10.1086/322033 . PMID   11443561.
  28. ↑ Ogbu O, Ajuluchukwu E, Uneke CJ (March 2007). "Lassa fever in West African sub-region: an overview". J Vector Borne Dis. 44 (1): 1–11. PMID   17378212.
  29. ↑ Weber DJ, Rutala WA, Fischer WA, Kanamori H, Sickbert-Bennett EE (May 2016). "Emerging infectious diseases: Focus on infection control issues for novel coronaviruses (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-CoV and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-CoV), hemorrhagic fever viruses (Lassa and Ebola), and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, A(H5N1) and A(H7N9)". Am J Infect Control. 44 (5 Suppl): e91–e100. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2015.11.018. PMC   7132650 . PMID   27131142.
  30. ↑ "Driving and Public Health", Public Health, Oxford University Press, 23 November 2021, doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756797-0211, ISBN   978-0-19-975679-7 , retrieved 23 April 2022
  31. ↑ "Lassa". Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Consortium. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  32. ↑ Preston, Richard (2002). The demon in the freezer: a true story . New York: Random House. ISBN   978-0-375-50856-1.
  33. ↑ Geisbert TW, Jones S, Fritz EA, Shurtleff AC, Geisbert JB, Liebscher R, Grolla A, Ströher U, Fernando L (2005). "Development of a New Vaccine for the Prevention of Lassa Fever". PLOS Med. 2 (6): e183. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020183 . PMC   1160587 . PMID   15971954.
  34. ↑ Salam AP, Duvignaud A, Jaspard M, Malvy D, Carroll M, Tarning J, Olliaro PL, Horby PW (30 March 2022). "Ribavirin for treating Lassa fever: A systematic review of pre-clinical studies and implications for human dosing". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 16 (3): e0010289. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010289 . ISSN   1935-2735. PMC   9000057 . PMID   35353804.
  35. ↑ Adewuyi GM, Fowotade A, Adewuyi BT (2009). "Lassa Fever: Another Infectious Menace". African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology. 10 (3). doi: 10.4314/ajcem.v10i3.43407 . ISSN   1595-689X. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
  36. ↑ Baize S, Pannetier D, Faure C, Marianneau P, Marendat I, Georges-Courbot MC, Deubel V (1 April 2006). "Role of interferons in the control of Lassa virus replication in human dendritic cells and macrophages". Microbes and Infection. 8 (5): 1194–1202. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2006.02.002 . ISSN   1286-4579. PMID   16621649.
  37. ↑ Price ME, Fisher-Hoch SP, Craven RB, McCormick JB (September 1988). "A prospective study of maternal and fetal outcome in acute Lassa fever infection during pregnancy". BMJ. 297 (6648): 584–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.297.6648.584. PMC   1834487 . PMID   3139220.
  38. ↑ Samuel D. "Lassa fever... What you need to know" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
  39. ↑ OKOGBENIN S. "CLINICAL FEATURES AND MANAGEMENT OF LASSA FEVER" (PDF). World Health Organization: 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  40. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Lassa Fever, Signs and Symptoms" Archived 9 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  41. ↑ Emond RT, Bannister B, Lloyd G, Southee TJ, Bowen ET (1982). "A case of Lassa fever: Clinical and virological findings". British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 285 (6347): 1001–1002. doi:10.1136/bmj.285.6347.1001. PMC   1500383 . PMID   6812716.
  42. ↑ "Lassa fever". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
  43. ↑ McCormick JB, King IJ, Webb PA, Scribner CL, Craven RB, Johnson KM, Elliott LH, Belmont-Williams R (2 January 1986). "Lassa fever. Effective therapy with ribavirin". The New England Journal of Medicine. 314 (1): 20–26. doi:10.1056/NEJM198601023140104. ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   3940312.
  44. ↑ "Outbreak Distribution Map of Lassa Fever". www.cdc.gov. CDC. 4 March 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  45. ↑ "Lassa Fever". Africa CDC. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  46. ↑ Owoseye A (11 March 2020). "Lassa Fever: Nigeria's death toll reaches 144". Archived from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
  47. ↑ Branswell H (28 October 2024). "U.S. death from Lassa fever, an Ebola-like virus, is reported in Iowa". STAT. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  48. ↑ CDC (28 October 2024). "Lassa Fever Suspected in Death of U.S. Traveler Returning from West Africa". CDC Newsroom. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  49. ↑ Maxmen A (15 March 2018). "Deadly Lassa-fever outbreak tests Nigeria's revamped health agency". Nature. 555 (7697): 421–422. Bibcode:2018Natur.555..421M. doi: 10.1038/d41586-018-03171-y . PMID   29565399.
  50. ↑ "On the frontlines of the fight against Lassa fever in Nigeria". World Health Organization. March 2018. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018.
  51. ↑ Beaubien J (19 March 2018). "Nigeria Faces Mystifying Spike in Deadly Lassa Fever". NPR. Archived from the original on 19 March 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2019.
  52. ↑ "Lassa Fever – Nigeria". World Health Organization. 1 March 2018. Archived from the original on 1 March 2018.
  53. ↑ Edward-Ekpu U (8 March 2020). "Nigeria is already dealing with a deadlier viral outbreak than the coronavirus epidemic". Quartz Africa. Archived from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
  54. 1 2 "Lassa fever situation report" (PDF). Nigeria Centre for Disease Control. March 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
  55. ↑ "Nigeria Centre for Disease Control". ncdc.gov.ng. Archived from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  56. ↑ "Lassa Fever - Nigeria". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  57. ↑ "NCDC Lassa fever Situation Report Epi Week 13: 28 March - 3 April, 2022 - Nigeria". ReliefWeb. 17 April 2022. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  58. ↑ Branswell H (28 October 2024). "U.S. death from Lassa fever, an Ebola-like virus, is reported in Iowa". STAT. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  59. ↑ CDC (28 October 2024). "Lassa Fever Suspected in Death of U.S. Traveler Returning from West Africa". CDC Newsroom. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  60. ↑ ProLife HC (29 October 2024). "Lassa Fever Death in Iowa After West African Travel" . Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  61. ↑ "WHO | Lassa Fever – Liberia". WHO. Archived from the original on 22 February 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
  62. ↑ "Liberia reports increase in Lassa fever". Outbreak News Today. 4 February 2020. Archived from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
  63. ↑ Mellor N (1 May 2004). "Aniru Conteh". BMJ. 328 (7447): 1078.1. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7447.1078. PMC   403863 .
  64. ↑ Kieny MP. "After Ebola, a Blueprint Emerges to Jump-Start R&D". Scientific American Blog Network. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  65. ↑ "LIST OF PATHOGENS". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
  66. ↑ "SIGA Technologies says passes first hurdle with lassa fever..." Reuters. 15 May 2007. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
  67. ↑ "WHO Target Product Profiles for Lassa virus Vaccine" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 September 2017.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.