Chandipura vesiculovirus

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Chandipura vesiculovirus
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Monjiviricetes
Order: Mononegavirales
Family: Rhabdoviridae
Genus: Vesiculovirus
Species:
Chandipura vesiculovirus
Synonyms [1]
  • Chandipura virus

Chandipura vesiculovirus (CHPV) is a member of the Rhabdoviridae family that is associated with an encephalitic illness, Chandipura encephalitis or Chandipura viral encephalitis, in humans. It was first identified in 1965 after isolation from the blood of two patients from Chandipura village in Maharashtra state, India [2] and has been associated with a number of outbreaks of encephalitic illness in central India.

Contents

In India and West Africa Chandipura vesiculovirus was isolated from sandflies which spread the virus. [3] [4]

Etymology

Chandipura virus was named after the village it was first identified in,Chandipura village in Maharashtra state, India during an outbreak of encephalitis in 1965. [5]

Virology

Chandipura vesiculovirus is an enveloped (-)ssRNA virus with an approximate genome length of ~11 kb. Viral genome codes for five polypeptides, namely, nucleocapsid protein N, phosphoprotein P, matrix protein M, glycoprotein G and large protein L in five monocistronic mRNAs. N protein encapsidates genome RNA into a nuclease-resistant form to protect in from cellular RNAse function. L and P protein together forms viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase; where catalytic functions for RNA polymerization, capping and poly-A polymerase resides within the L protein and P acts as a transcriptional activator. Matrix protein glues the encapsidated genome RNA, also known as nucleocapsid, with the outer membrane envelope. G protein spikes out of the membrane and acts as a major antigenic determinant. [6]

The viral life cycle is cytosolic. During transcription, viral polymerase synthesizes five discrete mRNAs and obeys to stop signals present at the gene boundaries. Accumulation of adequate amounts of viral proteins within infected cells through viral transcription and subsequent translation potentiate the onset of viral replicative cycle. In this phase, some L protein acts as a replicase and ignore the gene junctions to generate a polycistronic anti-genomic analogue that acts as a template for further rounds of replication to generate many more copies of the genome RNA. This progeny genome RNA upon packaging by viral proteins bud out as mature virus particles. As of 2007, the precise mechanism underlying the switch in polymerase function during viral replication remained unknown. [6]

Epidemiology

Chandipura virus is transmitted by sandflies, mosquitoes, and ticks. [5] Experimentally CHPV has been transmitted in Phlebotomus papatasi sand flies and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The ultimate reservoir is unknown. [7] Human-to-human transmission is not known to occur, therefore travel or trade restrictions are not needed. [5]

Geographically, Chandipura virus human infections so far have been described only in central India; however WHO suspects it could be found in other Asian or African countries, [5] as CHPV has been isolated from wild sandflies in Africa. The presence of the virus in Africa indicates a wide distribution. [7]

Past outbreaks occurred during extremely high ambient temperatures of 36–49 °C. [7] The 2024 outbreak correlates with exceptional rains and 2024 India floods where pools of water are breeding grounds for the insect vector, and lack of sanitation, lack of waste management or open sewerage. [5]

Infection

Chandipura virus infection
Specialty Infectious disease
Symptoms high fever, convulsion, confusion, diarrhea, vomiting, headache, unconsciousness, coma
Complications Chandipura viral encephalitis
CausesChandipura vesiculovirus
Treatment Supportive care
Medication Incurable

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of Chandipura virus infection typically include fever, muscle aches and headache. A high seroprevalence of neutralising antibodies in the healthy population has been found. Therefore most infections must be subclinical or mild. The lowest seroprevalence in the healthy population was in children under five (44%), 76% in those over five, and 97% in adults. [7]

The complicated course with brain infection includes convulsions, and unconsciousness, progressing rapidly to coma and in severe cases to death. [8] There has been a discussion in the scientific community as to whether the CNS infection should be termed encephalitis or febrile encephalopathy or vasculitis-associated cerebral infarction, [7] hence WHO uses the broader term "encephalitis syndrome". [5] In past outbreak studies cerebrospinal fluid analyses were normal. CNS imaging showed brain edema due to middle cerebral artery infarction or vasospasm, [7] with endothelial damage being the result of encephalitis. CNS imaging has also shown hypodense cortical areas in the frontal and temporal lobes. [9] The case-fatality rate of untreated encephalitis syndrome is 56–75%, [5] but early treatment of raised intracranial pressure reduces fatality rate. Of 27 children surviving encephalitis syndrome 24 completely recovered within 3 months, only two developed late onset refractory epilepsy and four continued to have hemiplegia after 8 months. [7]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of Chandipura virus infection is confirmed with immunoglobulin M enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IgM ELISA) or reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). [10]

Prevention and treatment

No specific treatment or vaccine is available for Chandipura virus infection, so management focuses on supportive care and prevention measures such as mosquito control. [8]

Outbreaks

Between June and August 2003, 329 children contracted the virus, and 183 died in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra states of India. [11] Further sporadic cases and deaths in children were observed in Gujarat state in 2004. [12] [13] In 2009, there were 52 positive cases, and 15 fatalities I n Maharashtra. In 2010, there were 50 positive cases and 16 fatalities in an outbreak in Gujarat in Kheda District, Vadodara District, and Panchmahal District. Between 2009 and 2011, there were 110 positive cases, and 3 fatalities. [14] [15] Sandfly bites were blamed for the outbreak, as they inhabit cracks in walls or parts of homes made of sand or mud. Sporadic cases appeared in Gujarat in 2014 and 2016. In 2016, a girl from Ahmedabad succumbed to the virus. In 2019, another girl from Bhayli, Vadodara succumbed to the virus. [16]

In July 2024, the so far largest outbreak occurred, particularly affecting children in Sabarkantha district of Gujarat. The outbreak raised public health concerns due to the rapid spread and the severity of symptoms observed. [17] [8] [18] At the end of July, 38 deaths caused by the virus were confirmed, [19] and there remains a speculative death toll of 48. [20] [21]

Related Research Articles

<i>Indiana vesiculovirus</i> Species of virus

Indiana vesiculovirus, formerly Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus is a virus in the family Rhabdoviridae; the well-known Rabies lyssavirus belongs to the same family. VSIV can infect insects, cattle, horses and pigs. It has particular importance to farmers in certain regions of the world where it infects cattle. This is because its clinical presentation is identical to the very important foot and mouth disease virus.

<i>Rhabdoviridae</i> Family of viruses in the order Mononegavirales

Rhabdoviridae is a family of negative-strand RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, fungi and protozoans serve as natural hosts. Diseases associated with member viruses include rabies encephalitis caused by the rabies virus, and flu-like symptoms in humans caused by vesiculoviruses. The name is derived from Ancient Greek rhabdos, meaning rod, referring to the shape of the viral particles. The family has 40 genera, most assigned to three subfamilies.

<i>Hepadnaviridae</i> Family of viruses

Hepadnaviridae is a family of viruses. Humans, apes, and birds serve as natural hosts. There are currently 18 species in this family, divided among 5 genera. Its best-known member is hepatitis B virus. Diseases associated with this family include: liver infections, such as hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinomas, and cirrhosis. It is the sole accepted family in the order Blubervirales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rabies virus</span> Species of virus

Rabies virus, scientific name Rabies lyssavirus, is a neurotropic virus that causes rabies in animals, including humans. It can cause violence, hydrophobia, and fever. Rabies transmission can also occur through the saliva of animals and less commonly through contact with human saliva. Rabies lyssavirus, like many rhabdoviruses, has an extremely wide host range. In the wild it has been found infecting many mammalian species, while in the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from mammals, birds, reptiles and insects. Rabies is reported in more than 150 countries and on all continents except Antarctica. The main burden of disease is reported in Asia and Africa, but some cases have been reported also in Europe in the past 10 years, especially in returning travellers.

<i>Bunyavirales</i> Order of RNA viruses

Bunyavirales is an order of segmented negative-strand RNA viruses with mainly tripartite genomes. Member viruses infect arthropods, plants, protozoans, and vertebrates. It is the only order in the class Ellioviricetes. The name Bunyavirales derives from Bunyamwera, where the original type species Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus was first discovered. Ellioviricetes is named in honor of late virologist Richard M. Elliott for his early work on bunyaviruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese encephalitis</span> Infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). While most infections result in little or no symptoms, occasional inflammation of the brain occurs. In these cases, symptoms may include headache, vomiting, fever, confusion and seizures. This occurs about 5 to 15 days after infection.

<i>Nipah virus</i> Species of virus

Nipah virus is a bat-borne, zoonotic virus that causes Nipah virus infection in humans and other animals, a disease with a very high mortality rate (40-75%). Numerous disease outbreaks caused by Nipah virus have occurred in South East Africa and Southeast Asia. Nipah virus belongs to the genus Henipavirus along with the Hendra virus, which has also caused disease outbreaks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral replication</span> Formation of biological viruses during the infection process

Viral replication is the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first get into the cell before viral replication can occur. Through the generation of abundant copies of its genome and packaging these copies, the virus continues infecting new hosts. Replication between viruses is greatly varied and depends on the type of genes involved in them. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus while most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm.

<i>Tick-borne encephalitis virus</i> Species of virus

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a positive-strand RNA virus associated with tick-borne encephalitis in the genus Flavivirus.

<i>Alphavirus</i> Genus of viruses

Alphavirus is a genus of RNA viruses, the sole genus in the Togaviridae family. Alphaviruses belong to group IV of the Baltimore classification of viruses, with a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. There are 32 alphavirus species, which infect various vertebrates such as humans, rodents, fish, birds, and larger mammals such as horses, as well as invertebrates. Alphaviruses that can infect both vertebrates and arthropods are referred dual-host alphaviruses, while insect-specific alphaviruses such as Eilat virus and Yada yada virus are restricted to their competent arthropod vector. Transmission between species and their vertebrate hosts occurs mainly via mosquitoes, making the alphaviruses a member of the collection of arboviruses – or arthropod-borne viruses. Alphavirus particles are enveloped, have a 70 nm diameter, tend to be spherical, and have a 40 nm isometric nucleocapsid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral encephalitis</span> Medical condition

Viral encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma, called encephalitis, by a virus. The different forms of viral encephalitis are called viral encephalitides. It is the most common type of encephalitis and often occurs with viral meningitis. Encephalitic viruses first cause infection and replicate outside of the central nervous system (CNS), most reaching the CNS through the circulatory system and a minority from nerve endings toward the CNS. Once in the brain, the virus and the host's inflammatory response disrupt neural function, leading to illness and complications, many of which frequently are neurological in nature, such as impaired motor skills and altered behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">H5N1 genetic structure</span> Genetic structure of Influenza A virus

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<i>Andes orthohantavirus</i> Species of virus

Andes orthohantavirus (ANDV), a species of Orthohantavirus, is a major causative agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in South America. It is named for the Andes mountains of Chile and Argentina, where it was first discovered. Originating in the reservoir of rodents, Andes orthohantavirus is easily transmitted to humans who come into contact with infected rodents or their fecal droppings. However, infected rodents do not appear ill, so there is no readily apparent indicator to determine whether the rodent is infected or not. Additionally, Andes orthohantavirus, specifically, is the only hantavirus that can be spread by human to human contact via bodily fluids or long-term contact from one infected individual to a healthy person.

Toscana phlebovirus (TOSV) is an arbovirus belonging to Bunyavirales, an order of negative-stranded, enveloped RNA viruses. The virus can be transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected sandfly of the genus Phlebotomus. Toscana is not normally associated with disease, as indicated by high seroprevalence rates in endemic areas, but in common with other sandfly transmitted viruses such as Naples virus and Sicilian virus, infection may result in Pappataci fever, an illness with mild fever, headache and myalgia. In serious cases that go undiagnosed, acute meningitis, meningoencephalitis and encephalitis may occur. There is no specific treatment for infection, so treatment is supportive, reducing the severity of symptoms until the immune system has cleared the infection.

<i>Banna virus</i> Species of virus

Banna virus (BAV) is a virus belonging to Reoviridae, a family of segmented, non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA viruses. It is an arbovirus, being primarily transmitted to humans from the bite of infected mosquitoes of the genus Culex. Pigs and cattle have also been shown to become infected. The most common symptom of infection is fever, but in some cases encephalitis may occur. There is no specific treatment for infection, so treatment is aimed at alleviating the severity of symptoms until the immune system has cleared the infection.

Tahyna orthobunyavirus ("TAHV") is a viral pathogen of humans classified in the California encephalitis virus (CEV) serogroup of the Orthobunyavirus family in the order Bunyavirales, which is endemic to Europe, Asia, Africa and possibly China.

Batai orthobunyavirus (BATV) is a RNA virus belonging to order Bunyavirales, genus Orthobunyavirus.

Cache Valley orthobunyavirus (CVV) is a member of the order Bunyavirales, genus Orthobunyavirus, and serogroup Bunyamwera, which was first isolated in 1956 from Culiseta inornata mosquitos collected in Utah's Cache Valley. CVV is an enveloped arbovirus, nominally 80–120 nm in diameter, whose genome is composed of three single-stranded, negative-sense RNA segments. The large segment of related bunyaviruses is approximately 6800 bases in length and encodes a probable viral polymerase. The middle CVV segment has a 4463-nucleotide sequence and the smallest segment encodes for the nucleocapsid, and a second non-structural protein. CVV has been known to cause outbreaks of spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations in ruminants such as sheep and cattle. CVV rarely infects humans, but when they are infected it has caused encephalitis and multiorgan failure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Positive-strand RNA virus</span> Class of viruses in the Baltimore classification

Positive-strand RNA viruses are a group of related viruses that have positive-sense, single-stranded genomes made of ribonucleic acid. The positive-sense genome can act as messenger RNA (mRNA) and can be directly translated into viral proteins by the host cell's ribosomes. Positive-strand RNA viruses encode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which is used during replication of the genome to synthesize a negative-sense antigenome that is then used as a template to create a new positive-sense viral genome.

Rio Negro virus is an alphavirus that was first isolated in Argentina in 1980. The virus was first called Ag80-663 but was renamed to Rio Negro virus in 2005. It is a former member of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex (VEEC), which are a group of alphaviruses in the Americas that have the potential to emerge and cause disease. Río Negro virus was recently reclassified as a distinct species. Closely related viruses include Mucambo virus and Everglades virus.

References

  1. ↑ Walker P (15 June 2015). "Implementation of taxon-wide non-Latinized binomial species names in the family Rhabdoviridae" (PDF). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
  2. ↑ Bhatt PN, Rodrigues FM (December 1967). "Chandipura: a new Arbovirus isolated in India from patients with febrile illness". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 55 (12): 1295–1305. PMID   4970067.
  3. ↑ Fontenille D, Traore-Lamizana M, Trouillet J, Leclerc A, Mondo M, Ba Y, et al. (May 1994). "First isolations of arboviruses from phlebotomine sand flies in West Africa". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 50 (5): 570–574. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1994.50.570. PMID   8203705.
  4. ↑ Mani RS, Ravi V, Desai A, Madhusudana SN (2012-03-01). "Emerging Viral Infections in India". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B. 82 (1): 5–21. Bibcode:2012PINSB..82....5M. doi:10.1007/s40011-011-0001-1. PMC   7100311 . PMID   32226201.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Devi S (September 7, 2024). "India facing largest Chandipura virus outbreak in 20 years". The Lancet. 404 (10456): 919. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01861-0.
  6. 1 2 Basak S, Mondal A, Polley S, Mukhopadhyay S, Chattopadhyay D (October 2007). "Reviewing Chandipura: a vesiculovirus in human epidemics". Bioscience Reports. 27 (4–5): 275–298. doi:10.1007/s10540-007-9054-z. PMC   7087735 . PMID   17610154.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Shepherd JG, Davis C, Streicker DG, Thomson EC (June 2023). "Emerging Rhabdoviruses and Human Infection". Biology. 12 (6): 878. doi: 10.3390/biology12060878 . PMC   10294888 . PMID   37372162.
  8. 1 2 3 Oommen N (2024-07-15). "Chandipura virus outbreak reported in Gujarat. What we know". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 2024-07-15. Retrieved 2024-07-16.
  9. ↑ Mishra A (December 2004). "Chandipura virus, encephalitis, and epidemic brain attack in India". The Lancet. 364 (9452): 2175–2176. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17580-6.
  10. ↑ "Acute encephalitis syndrome due to Chandipura virus – India". www.who.int. 23 August 2024. Retrieved 2024-09-06.
  11. ↑ Rao BL, Basu A, Wairagkar NS, Gore MM, Arankalle VA, Thakare JP, et al. (2004). "A large outbreak of acute encephalitis with high fatality rate in children in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 2003, associated with Chandipura virus". Lancet. 364 (9437): 869–874. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16982-1. PMC   7137741 . PMID   15351194.
  12. ↑ Chadha MS, Arankalle VA, Jadi RS, Joshi MV, Thakare JP, Mahadev PV, et al. (September 2005). "An outbreak of Chandipura virus encephalitis in the eastern districts of Gujarat state, India". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 73 (3): 566–570. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2005.73.566 . PMID   16172482.
  13. ↑ "Four children die in Gujarat from suspected Chandipura virus infection". Gujarat Samachar . Archived from the original on 2024-07-14. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  14. ↑ "Chandipura virus killed three, infected 11 in Maharashtra last year". The Times of India. 2012-06-11. ISSN   0971-8257. Archived from the original on 2024-07-14. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  15. ↑ "Chandipura Virus Kills 17 in Gujarat". DNA—Daily News & Analysis. Gandhinagar. 2010-08-05. Archived from the original on 2012-02-24. Retrieved 2012-02-24.
  16. ↑ "5-year-old girl dies of Chandipura virus in Gujarat". India Today. Press Trust of India. 17 July 2019. Archived from the original on 26 July 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  17. ↑ "Chandipura Virus claims twenty lives in Gujarat: Symptoms, precautions, treatments, how it spreads and all you need to know". The Economic Times. 2024-07-16. ISSN   0013-0389. Archived from the original on 2024-07-16. Retrieved 2024-07-16.
  18. ↑ "'12 suspected cases of Chandipura viral encephalitis reported in Gujarat'". The Times of India. 2024-07-16. ISSN   0971-8257. Archived from the original on 2024-07-16. Retrieved 2024-07-16.
  19. ↑ Mohammed M (2024-07-29). "India is suffering its largest Chandipura virus outbreak in 20 years – what you need to know". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2024-07-30. Retrieved 2024-07-30.
  20. ↑ DHNS. "NIV confirms first death due to Chandipura virus in Gujarat; suspected death toll rises to 14". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 2024-07-17. Retrieved 2024-07-18.
  21. ↑ HT Correspondent (27 July 2024). "Gujarat records 48 AES deaths, 39 confirmed cases of Chandipura virus". Hindustan Times.
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