Ideonella sakaiensis | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Bacteria |
Phylum: | Pseudomonadota |
Class: | Betaproteobacteria |
Order: | Burkholderiales |
Family: | Comamonadaceae |
Genus: | Ideonella |
Species: | I. sakaiensis |
Binomial name | |
Ideonella sakaiensis Yoshida et al. 2016 [1] | |
Ideonella sakaiensis is a bacterium from the genus Ideonella and family Comamonadaceae capable of breaking down and consuming the plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) using it as both a carbon and energy source. The bacterium was originally isolated from a sediment sample taken outside of a plastic bottle recycling facility in Sakai City, Japan. [1] [2]
Ideonella sakaiensis was first identified in 2016 by a team of researchers led by Kohei Oda of Kyoto Institute of Technology and Kenji Miyamoto of Keio University after collecting a sample of PET-contaminated sediment at a plastic bottle recycling facility in Sakai, Japan. [1] [3] The bacteria was first isolated from a consortium of microorganisms in the sediment sample, which included protozoa and yeast-like cells. The entire microbial community was shown to mineralize 75% of the degraded PET into carbon dioxide once it had been initially degraded and assimilated by Ideonella sakaiensis. [1]
Ideonella sakaiensis is gram-negative, aerobic, and rod-shaped. Cells are motile and have a single flagellum. Colonies of I. sakaiensis are colorless, smooth, and circular. Its size varies from 0.6 to 0.8 μm in width and 1.2-1.5 μm in length. [1]
I. sakaiensis also tests positive for oxidase and catalase. The bacterium grows at a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0 (optimally at 7 to 7.5) and a temperature of 15–42 °C (59–108 °F) (optimally at 30–37 °C (86–99 °F)).
This bacterium's gram negativity gives it resistant abilities and genes; this could include antibiotic resistance. The negativity also means that it has a thin cell wall and a high lipid content.[ citation needed ]
The aerobic aspect of this bacterium means that it can grow and thrive only in an environment that contains oxygen. Ideonella sakaiensis and other aerobic bacteria therefore survive in oxygen-rich soil that is moist and aerated.[ citation needed ]
The flagellum attached to this bacterium are used as motile organelles and are able to rotate and thrust the cell throughout its environment by creating motion. The bacterium was also shown to grow on the surface of polyethylene terephthalate (PET),a type of plastic, adhering with its thin flagellum. This is shown in the image to the right. The flagellum may also secrete PET-degrading enzymes onto the PET surface known as PETases.[ citation needed ]
Through phylogenetic analysis, the species was shown to be a part of the genus Ideonella, but possessed a significantly different genome than other known species in the genus, including Ideonella dechloratans and Ideonella azotifigens, thus justifying its classification as a new species. [1]
Ideonella sakaiensis adhere to PET surface and use a secreted PET hydrolase, or PETase, to degrade the PET into mono(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalic acid (MHET), a heterodimer composed of terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene glycol. The PETase also degrades PET into another intermediate known as Bis-(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET), BHET can be converted into MHET after PET hydrolysis. [4] The I. sakaiensis PETase functions by hydrolyzing the ester bonds present in PET with high specificity. The resulting MHET is then degraded into its two monomeric constituents by a lipid-anchored MHET hydrolase enzyme, or MHETase, on the cell's outer membrane. [1] The overall mechanism of the PET plastic being broken down is exhibited in the image above. The monomeric constituents such as ethylene glycol is then taken up and used by I. sakaiensis and many other bacteria. [1] [5] The other constituent; terephthalic acid, a more recalcitrant compound, is imported into the I. sakaiensis cell via the terephthalic acid transporter protein. Once in the cell, the aromatic terephthalic acid molecule is oxidized by terephthalic acid-1,2-dioxygenase and 1,2-dihydroxy-3,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dicarboxylate dehydrogenase into a catechol intermediate. The catechol ring is then cleaved by PCA 3,4-dioxygenase before the compound is integrated into other metabolic pathways (e.g. TCA cycle). [1] As a result, both of the molecules derived from the PET are used by the cell to produce energy and to build necessary biomolecules. Eventually, the assimilated carbon may be mineralized to carbon dioxide and released into the atmosphere. [1]
The discovery of Ideonella sakaiensis has potential importance for the degradation of PET plastics. Prior to its discovery, the only known degraders of PET were a small number of bacteria and fungi, including Fusarium solani , and no organisms were definitively known to degrade PET as a primary carbon and energy source. [1] The discovery of I. sakaiensis spurred discussion about PET biodegradation as a method of recycling and bioremediation. [1]
The wild-type bacterium is able to colonize and break down a thin (0.2 mm thickness) film of low-crystallinity (soft) PET in approximately 6 weeks, and the responsible PETase enzyme was shown to degrade high-crystallinity (hard) PET approximately 30-fold slower (180 weeks or more than 3 years) than low-crystallinity PET. [1] A large amount of manufactured PET is highly crystalline (e.g. plastic bottles), so it is thought that any prospective applications of the I. sakaiensis PETase enzyme in recycling programs will need to be preceded by genetic optimization of the enzyme. [1] [6] The MHETase enzyme could also be optimized and used in recycling or bioremediation applications in combination with the PETase enzyme. It degrades the MHET produced by the PETase into ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. [1] Once formed, these two compounds can be further biodegraded into carbon dioxide by I. sakaiensis or other microbes, or purified and used to manufacture new PET in an industrial recycling plant setting. [1] [7]
Ideonella sakaiensis is being studied for its PET-degrading capabilities in sewage-fed fisheries. Various strains of this bacterium have been shown not to pose any threat to the growth and cultivation of fish. This species of bacterium makes effective use of PET as a source of carbon, and thrives in wastewater and plastic-polluted water ecosystems, showing its promise as a cost-effective anti-pollutant. [8]
The PET plastic-degrading enzyme of Ideonella sakaiensis known as; PETase, has been genetically modified and combined with MHETase to break down PET faster, which also degrades PEF (polyethylene furanoate) plastics. This, along with other approaches, may be useful in recycling and upcycling mixed plastics. [9] [10] [11]
In 2021, fifth graders Julia Stewart and Jacob Park created a coagulation filtration system concept for Toshiba's ExploraVision contest, using Ideonella sakaiensis in a process that filters, coagulates, flocculates, and sediments water in a more environmentally friendly and efficient way. [12] [13] [14] This project won the 4-6 division of ExploraVision in the United States. [12] [13]
Petrochemicals are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as maize, palm fruit or sugar cane.
Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the most commonly produced plastic. It is a polymer, primarily used for packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes and containers including bottles, cups, jars, etc.). As of 2017, over 100 million tonnes of polyethylene resins are being produced annually, accounting for 34% of the total plastics market.
Polyethylene terephthalate (or poly(ethylene terephthalate), PET, PETE, or the obsolete PETP or PET-P), is the most common thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in fibres for clothing, containers for liquids and foods, and thermoforming for manufacturing, and in combination with glass fibre for engineering resins.
Although PET is used in several applications, as of 2022 only bottles are collected at a substantial scale. The main motivations have been either cost reduction or recycle content of retail goods. An increasing amount is recycled back into bottles, the rest goes into fibres, film, thermoformed packaging and strapping. After sorting, cleaning and grinding, 'bottle flake' is obtained, which is then processed by either:
Terephthalic acid is an organic compound with formula C6H4(CO2H)2. This white solid is a commodity chemical, used principally as a precursor to the polyester PET, used to make clothing and plastic bottles. Several million tons are produced annually. The common name is derived from the turpentine-producing tree Pistacia terebinthus and phthalic acid.
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. It was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in 1933 by Dr John C. Swallow and M.W Perrin who were working for Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) using a high pressure process via free radical polymerization. Its manufacture employs the same method today. The EPA estimates 5.7% of LDPE is recycled in the United States. Despite competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important plastic grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about US$33 billion.
Polyester is a category of polymers that contain one or two ester linkages in every repeat unit of their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in plants and insects, as well as synthetics such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not. Synthetic polyesters are used extensively in clothing.
PBAT is a biodegradable random copolymer, specifically a copolyester of adipic acid, 1,4-butanediol and terephthalic acid. PBAT is produced by many different manufacturers and may be known by the brand names ecoflex, Wango,Ecoworld, Eastar Bio, and Origo-Bi. It is also called poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and sometimes polybutyrate-adipate-terephthalate or even just "polybutyrate". It is generally marketed as a fully biodegradable alternative to low-density polyethylene, having many similar properties including flexibility and resilience, allowing it to be used for many similar uses such as plastic bags and wraps. The structure is a random-block polymer consisting of butanediol–adipic acid and butanediol-terephthalic acid blocks.
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.
Cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) is a mixture of isomeric organic compounds with formula C6H10(CH2OH)2. It is a colorless low-melting solid used in the production of polyester resins. Commercial samples consist of a mixture of cis and trans isomers. It is a di-substituted derivative of cyclohexane and is classified as a diol, meaning that it has two OH functional groups. Commercial CHDM typically has a cis/trans ratio of 30:70.
Biodegradable additives are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers by allowing microorganisms to utilize the carbon within the polymer chain as a source of energy. Biodegradable additives attract microorganisms to the polymer through quorum sensing after biofilm creation on the plastic product. Additives are generally in masterbatch formation that use carrier resins such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Ideonella is a genus of bacteria in the family Comamonadaceae.
Polyethylene furan-2,5-dicarboxylate, also named poly(ethylene furan-2,5-dicarboxylate), polyethylene furanoate and poly(ethylene furanoate) and generally abbreviated as PEF, is a polymer that can be produced by polycondensation or ring-opening polymerization of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) and ethylene glycol. As an aromatic polyester from ethylene glycol it is a chemical analogue of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN). PEF has been described in (patent) literature since 1951, but has gained renewed attention since the US department of energy proclaimed its building block, FDCA, as a potential bio-based replacement for purified terephthalic acid (PTA) in 2004.
John McGeehan is a Scottish research scientist and professor of structural biology. He was director of the Centre for Enzyme Innovation (CEI) at the University of Portsmouth until 2022 and is now a principal scientist and group manager at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Colorado, US.
PETases are an esterase class of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown (via hydrolysis) of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic to monomeric mono-2-hydroxyethyl terephthalate (MHET). The idealized chemical reaction is:
2-Hydroxyethyl terephthalic acid is an organic compound with the formula HOC2H4O2CC6H4CO2H. It is the monoester of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. The compound is a precursor to poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), a polymer that is produced on a large scale industrially. 2-Hydroxyethyl terephthalic acid is a colorless solid that is soluble in water and polar organic solvents. Near neutral pH, 2-hydroxyethyl terephthalic acid converts to 2-hydroxyethyl terephthalate, HOC2H4O2CC6H4CO2−.
Kohei Oda is a Japanese microbiologist and an emeritus professor at Kyoto Institute of Technology. He is known for his work on bacterial discovery and bacterial metabolism. In particular, he led a team of Japanese scientists in the discovery of plastic-degrading bacteria, Ideonella sakaiensis, in 2016.
The enzyme MHETase is a hydrolase, which was discovered in 2016. It cleaves 2-hydroxyethyl terephthalic acid, the PET degradation product by PETase, to ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. This pair of enzymes, PETase and MHETase, enable the bacterium Ideonella sakaiensis to live on the plastic PET as sole carbon source.
Plastic degradation in marine bacteria describes when certain pelagic bacteria break down polymers and use them as a primary source of carbon for energy. Polymers such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are incredibly useful for their durability and relatively low cost of production, however it is their persistence and difficulty to be properly disposed of that is leading to pollution of the environment and disruption of natural processes. It is estimated that each year there are 9-14 million metric tons of plastic that are entering the ocean due to inefficient solutions for their disposal. The biochemical pathways that allow for certain microbes to break down these polymers into less harmful byproducts has been a topic of study to develop a suitable anti-pollutant.
A plastivore is an organism capable of degrading and metabolising plastic. While plastic is normally thought of as non-biodegradable, a variety of bacteria, fungi and insects have been found to degrade it.