Fusarium solani | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Sordariomycetes |
Order: | Hypocreales |
Family: | Nectriaceae |
Genus: | Fusarium |
Species: | F. solani |
Binomial name | |
Fusarium solani | |
Synonyms | |
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Fusarium solani is a species complex of at least 26 closely related filamentous fungi in the division Ascomycota, family Nectriaceae. [1] It is the anamorph of Nectria haematococca . [1] It is a common soil inhabiting mold. [2] Fusarium solani is implicated in plant diseases as well as in serious human diseases such as fungal keratitis. [1]
The genus Fusarium was described in 1809 by Link. [3] In the 1930s, Wollenweber and Reinking organized the genus Fusarium into sections, including Martiella and Ventricosum, [3] which were collapsed together by Snyder and Hansen in the 1940s to form a single species, Fusarium solani; [3] one of nine Fusarium species they recognized based on morphological features. [2] The current concept of F. solani is as a species complex consisting of multiple, closely related and morphologically poorly distinguishable, "cryptic" species with characteristic genetic differences. [4] There is a proposed concept for the entire genus - widely subscribed by specialists - that would include this complex. [5] [6] However, there is a smaller counterproposal that radically refiles the genus including making this complex into a genus Neocosmospora. [7] The fungus is allied with the sexual species, Nectria haematococca, in the family Nectriaceae (phylum Ascomycota). [1]
Like other species in its genus, Fusarium solani produces colonies that are white and cottony. However, instead of developing a pink or violet centre like most Fusarium species, [8] F. solani becomes blue-green or bluish brown. [1] [8] [9] On the underside, they may be pale, tea-with-milk-brown, or red-brown. [1] However, some clinical isolates have been blue-green or ink-blue on the underside. [1] F. solani colonies are low-floccose, loose, slimy, and sporadic. [1] When grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA), this fungus grows rapidly, but not as rapidly as Fusarium oxysporum . [9] In PDA, F. solani colonies reach a diameter of 64–70 mm in 7 days. [1]
F. solani has aerial hyphae that give rise to conidiophores laterally. [1] The conidiophores branch into thin, elongated monophialides that produce conidia. [1] [9] Phialides that produce macroconidia are shorter than those that produce microconidia. [1] The macroconidia produced by F. solani are slightly curved, hyaline, and broad, [1] often aggregating in fascicles. [10] Typically the macroconidia of this species have 3 septa but may have as many as 4–5. [1] [10] Microconidia have thickened basal cells and tapered, rounded apical cells. [1] However, some F. solani isolates have pointed, rather than rounded, macroconidia. [1] Microconidia are oval or cylindrical, hyaline, and smooth. [1] Some microconidia may be curved. [1] Microconidia typically lack septa, but occasionally they may have up to two. [1] Fusarium solani also forms chlamydospores most commonly under suboptimal growth conditions. [10] These may be produced in pairs or individually. [9] [10] They are abundant, have rough walls, and are 6-11 μm. [1] F. solani chlamydospores are also brown and round. [11]
F. solani is found in soil worldwide. [2] However, a given species within the complex may not be as widespread [2] and may not have the same ecology as others in the complex. [10] In general, as a soil fungus, F. solani is associated with the roots of plants [1] and may be found as deep in the ground as 80 cm. [10] It is frequently isolated in tropic, subtropic, and temperate locations, and less frequently isolated from alpine habitats. [10] The pH of soil does not have a significant effect on F. solani, however, soil fumigation causes an increase in occurrence. [10] F. solani is typically sensitive to soil fungicides. [10] F. solani has been found in ponds, rivers, sewage facilities, and water pipes. [1] It has also been found in larvae and adults of the picnic beetle, is a symbiote of the ambrosia beetle. [10]
F. solani can be found in soils worldwide, where its chlamydospores overwinter on plant tissue/seed or as mycelium in the soil. [12] The pathogen enters hosts through developing roots, where it can infect the host. After infection, F. solani produces asexual macro and microconidia which are dispersed through wind and rain. [13] The pathogen can persist in the soil for a decade, and if left unchecked can cause complete crop loss.
F. solani have 5-13 chromosomes, [3] [10] with a genome size of about 40 Mb. [3] The GC-content of its DNA is 50%. [10] Mycelium of F. solani is rich in the amino acid alanine, as well as a range of fatty acids including δ-aminobutyric-, palmitic-, oleic-, and linolenic acids. [10] Fusarium solani requires potassium for growth, [10] and develops a feathery pattern when potassium levels are below 3 mM. [3] In culture the following disaccharides are utilized (from most- to least preferential): mannose, rhamnose and sorbose. [10] This species can decompose cellulose at an optimal pH of 6.5 and temperature of 30 °C. [10] It can also metabolise steroids and lignin, [3] and reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+. [10] Fusarium solani produces mycotoxins like Fusaric acid and naphthoquinones. [1] [14] Other toxins have also been isolated from F. solani, including:
F. solani is largely resistant to typical antifungal agents. [3] The most effective antifungals in treating F. solani infections are amphotericin B and natamycin; however, these agents have only modest success in the treatment of serious systemic infection. [3]
As of 2006, there has been increasing evidence that F. solani can act as a causal agent of mycoses in humans. [15] F. solani has been implicated in the following diseases: disseminated disease, osteomyelitis, skin infection, fungemia, and endophthalmitis. [16] Half of human disease involving Fusarium is caused by F. solani and it is involved in most cases of systemic fusariosis and corneal infections. [4] In immunocompromised patients, F. solani is one of the most common agents in disseminated and cutaneous infections. [1]
In the southern USA, fungal keratitis has been most commonly caused by F. solani, as well as F. oxysporum. Cases occur most frequently during harvest season as a result of corneal trauma from dust or plant material. Fungal spores come into contact with the damaged cornea and grow. Without treatment, the hyphae can grow into the cornea and into the anterior chamber of the eye. [17] F. solani is also a major cause of fungal keratitis in HIV positive patients in Africa. [1]
As of 2011, F. solani was implicated in cases of fungal keratitis involving the Bausch and Lomb ReNu contact lens solution. [4] Some strains of F. solani can produce a biofilm on soft contact lenses. However, when lenses are cleaned correctly with solution, these biofilms are prevented. [4] Prevention also includes leaving lenses in polyhexanide biguanide solution overnight to inhibit F. solani. [1] Other risk factors of contact lens-related Fusarium keratitis include use of daily-wear lenses beyond the recommended timeline and overnight wear. [4]
An investigation into a meningitis outbreak of 79 cases since October 2022, which had killed 35 people (34 of them women who had undergone cesarean section) in Durango (city) revealed contamination of bupivacaine with Fusarium solani in 4 batches, used by an anesthesiologist. [18] US news reported however, that the anesthesiologist used multi-dose vials of morphine, which he would administer in more than one patient for his anesthesias in the 4 private hospitals. [19] As of May 26, 2023 WHO had been asked to declare a public health emergency. [20]
As of June 1, 2023, a multistate outbreak of meningitis due to F. solani was ongoing among patients who underwent epidural anesthesia at two clinics in the Mexican city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, with a total of 212 residents in 25 US states identified as being at risk, two of whom had died. [21] [22]
F. solani is implicated in cutaneous infections of young turtles as well as infections of turtle egg shells. [1] It has also caused infections in Australian crocodile farms, sea lions and grey seals. [1] F. solani is a facultative pathogen of the castor bean tick. It is also lethal to southern pine beetles. [10]
F. solani rots the roots of its host plant. [23] It also causes soft rot of plant tissues by penetrating plant cell walls and destroying the torus. [10] It is implicated, along with Pythium myriotylum , in pod rot of the pods of groundnuts. [10] F. solani can cause damping off, corn rot, and root rot, as well as sudden death of soybeans (SDS). It is a very generalistic fungal species and has been known to infect peas, beans, potatoes, and many types of cucurbits. [24] Symptoms include general plant decline, wilting, and large necrotic spots on tap roots.
Recently the pathogen has also done serious damage to olive trees throughout the mediterranean.[ citation needed ]
Virulence of this agent in plants is controlled by the cutinase genes cut1 and cut2. These genes are upregulated by exposure to the plant's cutin monomers. [25] F. solani is known to cause sudden death syndrome in soybeans, and it is also known to cause disease in other economically important crops such as avocado, citrus, orchids, passion fruit, peas, peppers, potato, and squash. [3]
The ubiquitous nature of F. solani gives rise to a plethora of management practices developed independently. One particular method is the use of the bacterial complex Burkholderia cepacia, which is a registered control method. This bacterial complex has been shown to produce several types of antibiotics (depending on the strain), and can act as a substitute for chemical pesticides. [26] Precautionary methods include planting during warm/dry weather, 3 plus years of crop rotation of non host species, and avoiding dense seed planting. [12]
In the 2023 Matamoros outbreak of F. solani meningitis CDC recommended liposomal amphotericin B and voriconazole, [27] however, disease progressed on this regimen, [28] and patients were trialed on fosmanogepix through a compassionate use authorization.
F. solani has been investigated as a biological control for certain plants including leafy spurge, morning glory, striga, gourd, and water hyacinth. [3]
Fusarium wilt is a common vascular wilt fungal disease, exhibiting symptoms similar to Verticillium wilt. This disease has been investigated extensively since the early years of this century. The pathogen that causes Fusarium wilt is Fusarium oxysporum. The species is further divided into formae speciales based on host plant.
Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins in cereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter the food chain. The main toxins produced by these Fusarium species are fumonisins and trichothecenes. Despite most species apparently being harmless, some Fusarium species and subspecific groups are among the most important fungal pathogens of plants and animals.
Fungal keratitis is a fungal infection of the cornea, which can lead to blindness. It generally presents with a red, painful eye and blurred vision. There is also increased sensitivity to light, and excessive tears or discharge.
Phytophthora palmivora is an oomycete that causes bud-rot of palms, fruit-rot or kole-roga of coconut and areca nut. These are among the most serious diseases caused by fungi and moulds in South India. It occurs almost every year in Malnad, Mysore, North & South Kanara, Malabar and other areas. Similar diseases of palms are also known to occur in Sri Lanka, Mauritius, and Sumatra. The causative organism was first identified as P. palmivora by Edwin John Butler in 1917.
Rhizoctonia solani is a species of fungus in the order Cantharellales. Basidiocarps are thin, effused, and web-like, but the fungus is more typically encountered in its anamorphic state, as hyphae and sclerotia. The name Rhizoctonia solani is currently applied to a complex of related species that await further research. In its wide sense, Rhizoctonia solani is a facultative plant pathogen with a wide host range and worldwide distribution. It causes various plant diseases such as root rot, damping off, and wire stem. It can also form mycorrhizal associations with orchids.
Fusarium culmorum is a fungal plant pathogen and the causal agent of seedling blight, foot rot, ear blight, stalk rot, common root rot and other diseases of cereals, grasses, and a wide variety of monocots and dicots. In coastal dunegrass, F. culmorum is a nonpathogenic symbiont conferring both salt and drought tolerance to the plant.
Nectria radicicola is a plant pathogen that is the causal agent of root rot and rusty root. Substrates include ginseng and Narcissus. It is also implicated in the black foot disease of grapevine. It is of the genus Nectria and the family Nectriaceae. N. radicicola is recognizable due to its unique anatomy, morphology, and the formation of its anamorph Cylindrocarpon desructans.
Gibberella zeae, also known by the name of its anamorph Fusarium graminearum, is a fungal plant pathogen which causes fusarium head blight (FHB), a devastating disease on wheat and barley. The pathogen is responsible for billions of dollars in economic losses worldwide each year. Infection causes shifts in the amino acid composition of wheat, resulting in shriveled kernels and contaminating the remaining grain with mycotoxins, mainly deoxynivalenol (DON), which inhibits protein biosynthesis; and zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin. These toxins cause vomiting, liver damage, and reproductive defects in livestock, and are harmful to humans through contaminated food. Despite great efforts to find resistance genes against F. graminearum, no completely resistant variety is currently available. Research on the biology of F. graminearum is directed towards gaining insight into more details about the infection process and reveal weak spots in the life cycle of this pathogen to develop fungicides that can protect wheat from scab infection.
Ceratocystis paradoxa or Black Rot of Pineapple is a plant pathogen that is a fungus, part of the phylum Ascomycota. It is characterized as the teleomorph or sexual reproduction stage of infection. This stage contains ascocarps, or sacs/fruiting bodies, which contain the sexually produced inoculating ascospores. These are the structures which are used primarily to survive long periods of time or overwinter to prepare for the next growing season of its host. Unfortunately, the sexual stage is not often seen in the natural field but instead the anamorph, or asexual stage is more commonly seen. This asexual stage name is Thielaviopsis paradoxa and is the common cause of Black rot or stem-end rot of its hosts.
Fusarium incarnatum is a fungal pathogen in the genus Fusarium, family Nectriaceae. It is usually associated with over 40 phylogenetic species in the natural environment to form the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti species complex (FIESC). This complex is widespread across the globe in subtropical and temperate regions, resulting in many reported cases of crop diseases. It produces various mycotoxins including trichothecenes zearalenone, causing both plant and animal diseases.
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris is a fungal plant pathogen that causes fusarium wilt of chickpea.
Fusarium redolens is a species of fungus in the genus Fusarium and family Nectriaceae. This species is a soil-borne plant pathogen in temperate prairies. It causes diseases such as root, crown, and spear rot, seedling damping-off, and wilting disease. It is a known producer of the alkaloids peimisine and imperialine-3β-d-glucoside, which has implications for traditional Chinese medicine.
Fusarium sporotrichioides is a fungal plant pathogen, one of various Fusarium species responsible for damaging crops, in particular causing a condition known as Fusarium head blight in wheat, consequently being of notable agricultural and economic importance. The species is ecologically widespread, being found across tropical and temperate regions, and is a significant producer of mycotoxins, particularly trichothecenes. Although mainly infecting crops, F. sporotrichioides-derived mycotoxins can have repercussions for human health in the case of the ingestion of infected cereals. One such example includes the outbreak of alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) in Russia, of which F. sporotrichioides-infected crop was suspected to be the cause. Although current studies on F. sporotrichioides are somewhat limited in comparison to other species in the genus, Fusarium sporotrichioides has found several applications as a model system for experimentation in molecular biology.
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense is a fungal plant pathogen that causes Panama disease of banana, also known as Fusarium wilt. The fungi and the related disease are responsible for widespread pressure on banana growing regions, destroying the economic viability of several commercially important banana varieties.
Fusarium circinatum is a fungal plant pathogen that causes the serious disease pitch canker on pine trees and Douglas firs. The most common hosts of the pathogen include slash pine, loblolly pine, Monterey pine, Mexican weeping pine, and Douglas fir. Like other Fusarium species in the phylum Ascomycota, it is the asexual reproductive state of the fungus and has a teleomorph, Gibberella circinata.
Microbial corneal infection is the most serious and "most common vision threatening" complication of contact lens wear, which is believed to be strongly associated with contact lens cases. Such infections "are being increasingly recognized as an important cause of morbidity and blindness" and "may even be life-threatening." While the cornea is believed to be the most common site for fungal eye infections, other parts of the eye such as the orbit, sclera, eyelids, and more may also be involved. Contact lens cases are recognized as a "potential source of pathogens associated with corneal ulcers" and according to Moorfields Eye Hospital, contact lens wear is “the most prevalent risk factor for new cases of corneal ulcers.” Contaminants "isolated from contact lens associated corneal ulcers have often been shown to be" the same as found in the patient's contact lens case, thus providing evidence contaminated contact lens cases may be a "replenishable source of pathogenic microbes."
Fusarium mangiferae is a fungal plant pathogen that infects mango trees. Its aerial mycelium is white and floccose. Conidiophores on aerial mycelium originating erect and prostrate from substrate; they are sympodially branched bearing mono and polyphialides. Polyphialides have 2–5 conidiogenous openings. Phialides on the aerial conidiophores mono- and polyphialidic. Sterile hyphae are absent. Microconidia are variable in shape, obovoid conidia are the most abundant type, oval to allantoid conidia occurring occasionally. Microconidia mostly 0-septate with 1-septate conidia occurring less abundantly. Sporodochia are present. Macroconidia are long and slender, usually 3–5 septate. Chlamydospores are absent.
Fusarium dry rot is one of the most common potato diseases. It is caused by fungi in the genus Fusarium. This fungi causes a variety of colored rots in potatoes. This pathogen, while having both a sexual and asexual form, stays in an asexual cycle due to the way it spreads. Preferring warmer climates, it is not uncommon to find this pathogen in the northern United States where it has been reported to affect yield as much as 60%.
Koa wilt is a relatively new disease to Hawaii, discovered in 1980. Koa wilt is caused by a forma specialis of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum, which is now abundant in Hawaiian soils and infects the native Acacia koa tree, a once-dominant species in the canopy of Hawaiian forests. Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. koae is believed to have been brought into Hawaii on an ornamental acacia plant. Fusarium fungi clog the tree xylem, causing significant wilt and mortality among Koa trees. Due to their cultural importance, Koa wilt is one of the Envirormental issues of Hawaii.
Sudden death syndrome (SDS), a disease in soybean plants, quickly spread across the southern United States in the 1970s, eventually reaching most agricultural areas of the US. SDS is caused by multiple Fusarium fungi in the Fusariumsolani complex. Fusarium virguliforme is the sole causal agent in North America. In South America, Fusarium brasiliense, F. cuneirostrum, F. tucumaniae, and F. virguliforme are all causal agents. Losses could exceed hundreds of millions of dollars in US soybean markets alone making it one of the most important diseases found in Soybeans across the US.
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