John W. Birks

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John W. Birks
John W. Birks Photo.jpg
John W. Birks
Born
John W. Birks

(1946-12-10)10 December 1946
Vinita, Oklahoma, United States
Alma mater University of California, Berkeley
University of Arkansas
Known forResearch in atmospheric chemistry, co-developer of the nuclear winter theory and development of air pollution monitors
Awards
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
Thesis [ escholarship.org/uc/item/9nk8c936 Theory of the Dissociation of Diatomic Molecules and a Study of the Emission Spectra of IF] (1974)
Doctoral advisor Harold S. Johnston
Website twobtech.com/john-birks.html

John W. Birks (born 10 December 1946, in Vinita, Oklahoma, USA) is an American atmospheric chemist and entrepreneur who is best known for co-discovery with Paul Crutzen of the potential atmospheric effects of nuclear war known as nuclear winter. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] His most recent awards include the 2019 Haagen-Smit Clean Air Award for his contributions to atmospheric chemistry and the 2022 Future of Life Award for discovery of the nuclear winter effect.

Contents

As an entrepreneur, Birks co-founded the two technology companies, 2B Technologies and InDevR. At 2B Technologies he served as president during 2005-2020 and currently serves as Chief Scientist. [8] [9]

Early life and education

Birks received his BS (1968) degree in chemistry with high honors from the University of Arkansas. [9] He carried out his graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley where he completed his MS (1970) and PhD (1974) in physical chemistry under the direction of Professor Harold S. Johnston, being co-directed by Henry F. Schaeffer III and William H. Mille r during his final year of graduate studies. [9] During a 1970-72 break between his MS and PhD studies at Berkeley, he performed alternative service as a conscientious objector to the Vietnam War as a research assistant at the Kansas University Medical Center.

Research and career

Birks began his academic career in 1974 when he joined the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign as an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry. [10]

In 1977, he accepted the positions of associate professor of Chemistry and Fellow of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) at the University of Colorado Boulder where he could collaborate more closely with scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Center for Atmospheric Research. [9] He was promoted to full Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at CU Boulder in 1984 and served as chair of the department during 1995–1998. [9]

Birks received the Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship in 1979 and John Simon Guggenheim Fellowship in 1986.

Birks co-founded 2B Technologies, a company specializing in the development of instruments for environmental and atmospheric measurements, with Dr. Mark Bollinger in 1998. [9] [11] After twenty-five years of service, he retired from the University of Colorado Boulder in 2002 and joined 2B Technologies as vice president. [9] In 2005, he assumed leadership of 2B Technologies as president.

Since 2002, he has been Professor Emeritus of the Department of Chemistry [7] and Fellow Emeritus of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences. [12]

In 2003, Birks received the ACS Award for Creative Advances in Environmental Science and Technology from the American Chemical Society "for his measurements of the rate coefficients of chemical reactions key to understanding stratospheric ozone depletion, co-development of the nuclear winter theory, and invention of new analytical instruments for environmental analysis." [13]

In 2009, he founded the Global Ozone (GO3) Project, a non-profit middle and high school outreach program for ground-level ozone measurements. [10] The AQTreks educational outreach program, an outgrowth of the GO3 Project that allows students to perform mobile monitoring of air pollutants along treks of their own design, was founded by Birks and his colleagues in 2017. [10]

In 2019, Birks received the Haagen-Smit Clean Air Award, also known as the "Nobel prize of air pollution and climate science", from the California Air Resources Board (CARB). [14] The award was given for having "advanced our understanding of Earth's atmosphere through more than 40 years of research, teaching and technological innovation." [14]

In 2022, John Birks received the Future of Life Award from the Future of Life Institute "for reducing the risk of nuclear war by developing and popularizing the science of nuclear winter." [15]

Kinetics studies of atmospheric reactions

Birks' early research focused on discovering new reactions that are important in controlling ozone levels in the stratosphere. He and his research team at the University of Illinois and later at the University of Colorado Boulder published some of the first measurements of the temperature-dependent rate coefficients and product distributions for important stratospheric reactions. Some notable works were introductions of the species chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) [16] and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) [17] to stratospheric chemistry via measurements of the rates of reactions forming those species.

In 1977, the rate coefficient for the reaction ClO + NO2 + M → ClONO2 + M was first reported by the Birks research group. [16] Although the formation of chlorine nitrate reduces the effect of chlorine on stratospheric ozone at mid latitudes, it was later discovered by Susan Solomon that chlorine nitrate plays a key role in the formation of the Antarctic "ozone hole", reacting in the Austral spring with HCl on the surfaces of polar stratospheric clouds to produce catalytic forms of chlorine. [18] The Birks group also was among the first to report temperature-dependent rate coefficients and branching ratios for catalytic reactions involving bromine (BrO+ClO and BrO+BrO reactions), which were found to contribute ~20% of ozone depletion in the Antarctic ozone hole. [19] [20] [21] [22]

Discovery of nuclear winter effect

During his 1981/82 academic sabbatical at the Max Planck Institute in Mainz, Germany, Birks worked with Paul J. Crutzen (Nobel Laurette, 1995) [23] and wrote the first publication introducing the subject of what became known as nuclear winter: The atmosphere after a nuclear war: Twilight at noon (1982). [24] Their calculations showed that fires in cities, forests and oil production and storage facilities resulting from a major nuclear war would produce enough smoke to block as much as 99 percent of sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface throughout the northern hemisphere. [25] This work, published in 1982 in a special issue of the Swedish journal Ambio as part of a larger study of the environmental effects of nuclear warfare commissioned by the Swedish Academy of Sciences, was followed by a paper by Richard Turco, Brian Toon, Thomas Ackerman, [26] James Pollack and Carl Sagan (TTAPS) in the journal Science in 1983. [27] These two papers resulted in multi-year studies involving numerous government agencies and laboratories and evaluation reports by the National Academy of Sciences (1985), [28] the World Health Organization (WHO), [29] and the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU/SCOPE) [30] [31] on the environmental effects of nuclear war.

Highly portable instruments for air quality measurements

In 1998 Birks co-founded 2B Technologies with Dr. Mark Bollinger to develop and commercialize a new generation of miniature air monitoring instruments. At 2B Technologies, Birks led the development of more than 20 different models of highly portable and highly accurate instruments for trace-level monitoring of the air pollutants O3, NO, NO2, NOx, mercury and black carbon, and portable calibrators for O3, NO and NO2. [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] Seven of the instruments, including the pocket-sized Personal Ozone Monitor (POM), [33] have been designated as EPA Federal Equivalent Methods (FEM). [40] In 2020, 2B Technologies received a Tibbetts Award from the Small Business Administration for development of many of these air monitoring technologies through the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) federal research grants program. [41] Birks served as Principal Investigator on the 15 SBIR grants awarded to 2B Technologies by the Department of Energy (DOE), National Science Foundation (NSF), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National Institutes of Health (NIEHS/NIH). [42]

K-12 Educational Outreach

In 2009 Dr. Birks founded the Global Ozone Project or "GO3" Project, a middle and high school outreach program where students at more than 100 schools around the world measure ozone using a FEM ozone monitor (2B Tech Model 106-L) along with meteorological parameters using a Davis weather station. [43] In that project, data were continuously uploaded to a database for display on Google Earth and online graphing along with participation from schools around the world, including 30 international schools. More than 12 million ozone measurements and associated meteorological parameters were uploaded by these student-run monitoring stations. [44] This fixed-base monitoring program was replaced by a mobile monitoring project, AQTreks, in which students explore the concentrations of air pollutants (PM1, PM2.5, PM10, CO, CO2) in their communities along "treks" of their own design. Approximately 20,000 students at more than 250 U.S. schools have participated in the GO3 Project and AQTreks over the past 10 years. [44]

Awards and honors

Some of Birks's honors include the below:

Bibliography

Books edited

Selected publications

Related Research Articles

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References

  1. 1 2 Johnston, Harold; Whitten, Gary; Birks, John (November 27, 1973). "Effect of nuclear explosions on stratospheric nitric oxide and ozone". Journal of Geophysical Research. 78 (27): 6107–6135. Bibcode:1973JGR....78.6107J. doi:10.1029/JC078i027p06107 – via Wiley Online Library.
  2. 1 2 Crutzen, Paul, Birks, John (1982). "The atmosphere after a nuclear war: Twilight at noon". Ambio. 11: 114–125.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ "Atmospheric effects of nuclear war". Research Gate. November 1983. Retrieved 16 Dec 2021.
  4. ↑ Birks, John (May–June 1983). "Darkness at Noon: The Environmental Effects of Nuclear War". Sierra. 68 (3): 58–61.
  5. ↑ Stephens, Sherry L.; Birks, John W. (1985). "After Nuclear War: Perturbations in Atmospheric Chemistry". BioScience. 35 (9): 557–562. doi:10.2307/1309963. ISSN   0006-3568. JSTOR   1309963.
  6. ↑ "Possible Toxic Environments Following a Nuclear War," J. W. Birks and S. L. Stephens, In The Medical Implications of Nuclear War, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, pp. 155-166 (1986). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK219160/
  7. 1 2 "John Birks". University of Colorado Boulder Department of Chemistry. October 1, 2020.
  8. ↑ "Air quality monitoring innovations merit small business recognition (Environmental Factor, February 2021)". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "John Birks".
  10. 1 2 3 "R&D". John Birks.
  11. ↑ "2B Technologies".
  12. ↑ "John W. Birks, CIRES Fellow Emeritus".
  13. ↑ "Boulder chemist wins national award for studies of atmosphere". EurekAlert!.
  14. 1 2 "CARB awards seven science luminaries with California's premier air quality award | California Air Resources Board". ww2.arb.ca.gov.
  15. ↑ "Future Of Life Award". Future of Life Institute. Retrieved 2022-08-23.
  16. 1 2 3 Birks, John W.; Shoemaker, Brian; Leck, Thomas J.; Borders, Richard A.; Hart, Larry J. (1977-05-15). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. II. Reactions involving chlorine nitrate and chlorine dioxide". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 66 (10): 4591–4599. Bibcode:1977JChPh..66.4591B. doi:10.1063/1.433716. ISSN   0021-9606.
  17. 1 2 Leck, Thomas J.; Cook, Jac-E L.; Birks, John W. (1980-02-15). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. III. Rate constant and products of the reaction between ClO and HO2 radicals at 298 K". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 72 (4): 2364–2373. Bibcode:1980JChPh..72.2364L. doi:10.1063/1.439484. ISSN   0021-9606.
  18. ↑ Solomon, Susan; Garcia, Rolando R.; Rowland, F. Sherwood; Wuebbles, Donald J. (June 1986). "On the depletion of Antarctic ozone". Nature. 321 (6072): 755–758. Bibcode:1986Natur.321..755S. doi:10.1038/321755a0. hdl: 2060/19910073958 . ISSN   1476-4687. S2CID   4304874.
  19. ↑ Hills, Alan J.; Cicerone, Ralph J.; Calvert, Jack G.; Birks, John W. (July 1987). "Kinetics of the BrO + ClO reaction and implications for stratospheric ozone". Nature. 328 (6129): 405–408. doi:10.1038/328405a0. ISSN   0028-0836. S2CID   33022195.
  20. ↑ Hills, Alan J.; Cicerone, Ralph J.; Calvert, Jack G.; Birks, John W. (April 1988). "Temperature dependence of the rate constant and product channels for the bromine oxide + chlorine oxide reaction". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 92 (7): 1853–1858. doi:10.1021/j100318a032. ISSN   0022-3654. S2CID   73567378.
  21. ↑ Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Birks, John W.; Calvert, Jack G. (September 1990). "Kinetics of the bromine monoxide radical + bromine monoxide radical reaction". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 94 (19): 7477–7482. doi:10.1021/j100382a032. ISSN   0022-3654.
  22. ↑ Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Birks, John W.; Calvert, Jack G. (May 1991). "Kinetics and temperature dependence of the bromine monoxide + chlorine monoxide reaction". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 95 (11): 4356–4364. doi:10.1021/j100164a035. ISSN   0022-3654.
  23. ↑ "Paul Crutzen, Nobel Prize in Chemistry". nobelprize.org. Retrieved December 16, 2021.
  24. ↑ Paul J. Crutzen and John W. Birks: The atmosphere after a nuclear war: Twilight at noon Ambio, 1982 (abstract)
  25. ↑ Possible Toxic Environments Following a Nuclear War. National Academies Press (US). 1986.
  26. ↑ "Thomas Ackerman". College of the Environment. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  27. ↑ "When Carl Sagan Warned the World About Nuclear Winter".
  28. ↑ The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 1985-01-01. doi:10.17226/540. ISBN   978-0-309-03528-6.
  29. ↑ WHO Management Group on Follow-Up of Resolution WHA36.28; Organization, World Health (1987). "Effects of nuclear war on health and health services : report of the WHO Management Group on Follow-up of Resolution WHA36.28: "The role of physicians and other health workers in the preservation and promotion of peace ..."" (in Swedish). hdl:10665/39199.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ↑ "Environmental consequences of nuclear war (scope 28): Volume 1, physical and atmospheric effects, A. B. Pittock, T. P. Ackerman, P. J. Crutzen, M. C. MacCracken, C. S. Shapiro and R. P. Turco. Volume 2, Ecological and Agricultural Effects M. A. Harwell an". Journal of Climatology. 7 (1): 100. January 1987. doi:10.1002/joc.3370070112.
  31. ↑ Harwell, M. A.; Hutchinson, T. C.; Cropper, Jr; Harwell, C. C.; Grover, H. D. (1985-01-01). "Scope 28: Environmental consequences of nuclear war. Volume II. Ecological and agricultural effects". OSTI   6714529.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  32. 1 2 Wilson, Kevin L.; Birks, John W. (2006-10-01). "Mechanism and Elimination of a Water Vapor Interference in the Measurement of Ozone by UV Absorbance". Environmental Science & Technology. 40 (20): 6361–6367. Bibcode:2006EnST...40.6361W. doi:10.1021/es052590c. ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   17120566.
  33. 1 2 3 Andersen, Peter C.; Williford, Craig J.; Birks, John W. (2010-10-01). "Miniature Personal Ozone Monitor Based on UV Absorbance". Analytical Chemistry. 82 (19): 7924–7928. doi:10.1021/ac1013578. ISSN   0003-2700. PMC   3065063 . PMID   21461365.
  34. 1 2 Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Andersen, Peter C.; Williford, Craig J.; Ennis, Christine A.; Birks, John W. (2017-06-15). "Use of a heated graphite scrubber as a means of reducing interferences in UV-absorbance measurements of atmospheric ozone". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 10 (6): 2253–2269. Bibcode:2017AMT....10.2253T. doi: 10.5194/amt-10-2253-2017 . ISSN   1867-8548.
  35. 1 2 Birks, John W.; Andersen, Peter C.; Williford, Craig J.; Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Strunk, Stanley E.; Ennis, Christine A.; Mattson, Erick (2018-05-14). "Folded tubular photometer for atmospheric measurements of NO2 and NO". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 11 (5): 2821–2835. Bibcode:2018AMT....11.2821B. doi: 10.5194/amt-11-2821-2018 . ISSN   1867-8548.
  36. ↑ Allen, Caroline; Carrico, Christian M.; Gomez, Samantha L.; Andersen, Peter C.; Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Williford, Craig J.; Birks, John W.; Salisbury, Dwayne; Carrion, Richard; Gates, Dan; Macias, Fabian (2018-11-02). "NOx instrument intercomparison for laboratory biomass burning source studies and urban ambient measurements in Albuquerque, New Mexico". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 68 (11): 1175–1189. doi: 10.1080/10962247.2018.1487347 . ISSN   1096-2247. PMID   29889623. S2CID   48353195.
  37. 1 2 Birks, John W.; Williford, Craig J.; Andersen, Peter C.; Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Strunk, Stanley; Ennis, Christine A. (2018-08-16). "Portable ozone calibration source independent of changes in temperature, pressure and humidity for research and regulatory applications". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 11 (8): 4797–4807. Bibcode:2018AMT....11.4797B. doi: 10.5194/amt-11-4797-2018 . ISSN   1867-8548. S2CID   217162584.
  38. 1 2 Birks, John W.; Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Andersen, Peter C.; Williford, Craig J.; Strunk, Stanley; Carpenter, Brian; Ennis, Christine A. (2020-03-03). "Portable calibrator for NO based on the photolysis of N2O and a combined NO2/NO/O3 source for field calibrations of air pollution monitors". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 13 (2): 1001–1018. Bibcode:2020AMT....13.1001B. doi: 10.5194/amt-13-1001-2020 . ISSN   1867-8548. S2CID   216159875.
  39. ↑ "2B Tech Products" . Retrieved December 16, 2021.
  40. ↑ "EPA Federal Equivalent Method (FEM)". Legal Information Institute. Retrieved December 16, 2001.
  41. ↑ "2020 Tibbetts Award Winner: 2B Technologies". 10 June 2020. Retrieved December 16, 2021.
  42. ↑ "John W. Birks Curriculum Vita" (PDF). Retrieved December 16, 2021.
  43. ↑ "AQTreks". AQTreks and Global Ozone Project. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  44. 1 2 3 Ellenburg, Jessa A.; Williford, Craig J.; Rodriguez, Shannon L.; Andersen, Peter C.; Turnipseed, Andrew A.; Ennis, Christine A.; Basman, Kali A.; Hatz, Jessica M.; Prince, Jason C.; Meyers, Drew H.; Kopala, David J. (October 2019). "Global Ozone (GO3) Project and AQTreks: Use of evolving technologies by students and citizen scientists to monitor air pollutants". Atmospheric Environment: X. 4: 100048. doi: 10.1016/j.aeaoa.2019.100048 . S2CID   204264294.
  45. ↑ Chemiluminescence and photochemical reaction detection in chromatography. John W. Birks. New York: VCH Publishers. 1989. ISBN   3-527-26782-4. OCLC   19457306.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  46. ↑ Hidden dangers : environmental consequences of preparing for war. Anne H. Ehrlich, John W. Birks. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. 1990. ISBN   0-87156-670-2. OCLC   21373501.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  47. ↑ The Chemistry of the atmosphere : its impact on global change. John W. Birks, Jack G. Calvert and Robert E. Sievers, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and American Chemical Society. Oxford [England]: Blackwell Scientific. 1992. ISBN   0-632-03779-2. OCLC   28583563.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  48. ↑ Johnston, Harold; Birks, John (1972). "Activation energies for the dissociation of diatomic molecules are less than the bond dissociation energies". Accounts of Chemical Research. 5 (10): 327–335. doi:10.1021/ar50058a002. ISSN   0001-4842.
  49. ↑ Birks, John W.; Gabelnick, Steven D.; Johnston, Harold S. (July 1975). "Chemiluminescence of IF in the gas phase reaction of I2 with F2". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy. 57 (1): 23–46. Bibcode:1975JMoSp..57...23B. doi:10.1016/0022-2852(75)90041-7.
  50. ↑ Birks, John W.; Shoemaker, Brian; Leck, Thomas J.; Hinton, Deborah M. (1976-12-15). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. I. Reaction of nitric oxide with ozone". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 65 (12): 5181–5185. Bibcode:1976JChPh..65.5181B. doi:10.1063/1.433059. ISSN   0021-9606.
  51. ↑ Cook, Jac-E L.; Ennis, Christine A.; Leck, Thomas J.; Birks, John W. (January 1981). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. IV. Rate constant for the reaction Cl+HOCl→HCl+ClO over the temperature range 243–365 K". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 74 (1): 545–549. Bibcode:1981JChPh..74..545C. doi:10.1063/1.440807. ISSN   0021-9606.
  52. ↑ Crutzen, Paul J.; Birks, John W. (November 27, 2016). Crutzen, Paul J.; Brauch, Hans Günter (eds.). Paul J. Crutzen: A Pioneer on Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Change in the Anthropocene. Springer International Publishing. pp. 125–152. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27460-7_5 – via Springer Link.
  53. ↑ Borders, Richard A.; Birks, John W. (August 1982). "High-precision measurements of activation energies over small temperature intervals: curvature in the Arrhenius plot for the reaction nitric oxide + ozone .fwdarw. nitrogen dioxide + oxygen". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 86 (17): 3295–3302. doi:10.1021/j100214a007. ISSN   0022-3654.
  54. ↑ Ongstad, Andrew P.; Birks, John W. (November 1984). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. V. Rate constants for the reactions O+NO 2 →NO+O 2 and O+ClO→Cl+O 2 at 298 K". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 81 (9): 3922–3930. doi:10.1063/1.448185. ISSN   0021-9606.
  55. ↑ Ongstad, Andrew P.; Birks, John W. (September 15, 1986). "Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. VI. Temperature dependence of the reactions O+NO 2 →NO+O 2 and O+ClO→Cl+O 2". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 85 (6): 3359–3368. doi:10.1063/1.450957. ISSN   0021-9606.
  56. ↑ Sigvardson, Kenneth W.; Birks, John W. (March 1, 1983). "Peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in liquid chromatography". Analytical Chemistry. 55 (3): 432–435. doi:10.1021/ac00254a006 – via ACS Publications.
  57. ↑ Sigvardson, Kenneth W.; Kennish, John M.; Birks, John W. (June 1, 1984). "Peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence detection of polycyclic aromatic amines in liquid chromatography". Analytical Chemistry. 56 (7): 1096–1102. doi:10.1021/ac00271a011 – via ACS Publications.
  58. ↑ Borders, Richard A.; Birks, John W. (August 1982). "High-precision measurements of activation energies over small temperature intervals: curvature in the Arrhenius plot for the reaction nitric oxide + ozone .fwdarw. nitrogen dioxide + oxygen". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 86 (17): 3295–3302. doi:10.1021/j100214a007. ISSN   0022-3654.
  59. ↑ Robinson, Jill K.; Bollinger, Mark J.; Birks, John W. (November 1, 1999). "Luminol/H2O2 Chemiluminescence Detector for the Analysis of Nitric Oxide in Exhaled Breath". Analytical Chemistry. 71 (22): 5131–5136. doi:10.1021/ac990646d. PMID   10575964 – via ACS Publications.
  60. ↑ Sikes, Hadley D.; Hansen, Ryan R.; Johnson, Leah M.; Jenison, Robert; Birks, John W.; Rowlen, Kathy L.; Bowman, Christopher N. (January 27, 2008). "Using polymeric materials to generate an amplified response to molecular recognition events". Nature Materials. 7 (1): 52–56. Bibcode:2008NatMa...7...52S. doi:10.1038/nmat2042. PMC   4299824 . PMID   17965717.
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