Khan Research Laboratories

Last updated

Khan Research Laboratories
Logo of the Khan Research Laboratories.gif
Former name
See note [note 1]
Established31 July 1976 (1976-07-31) [1]
Field of research
 National security
Fundamental science
Location Kahuta in Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan
33°37′16″N73°22′41″E / 33.621106°N 73.3781°E / 33.621106; 73.3781
Affiliations
Operating agency
 National Command Authority
Website krl.com.pk
Map
Pakistan Punjab location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Location in Punjab, Pakistan
Pakistan location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Khan Research Laboratories (Pakistan)

The Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories (shortened as KRL), [2] is a federally funded research and development laboratory located in Kahuta at a short distance from Rawalpindi in Punjab, Pakistan. Established in 1976, the laboratory is best known for its central role in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program and its understanding the nuclear science. [3]

Contents

Established in 1976, it was originally organized as a top-secret plant dedicated to enrichment as a response to the India's detonation of its first nuclear bomb in 1974. [3] Chosen for its remote yet relatively accessible location from Rawalpindi. [3] [4] [5] In the 1970s, the site was the cornerstone of the first stage of Pakistan's atomic bomb program, and serves as the center for conducting the nuclear scientific research. [6]

It is globally known for its research in gas centrifuges to produce the enriched uranium; and in past, it has competed with the PINSTECH on wide variety of weapon designs but it is now have focused in civilian missions, including the national security, fusion science and supercomputing. [6] [7]

History

As an aftermath of the India's first nuclear test, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) launched the studies on isotope separation through gas method by setting the plant as Project-706 under Bashiruddin Mahmood, a nuclear engineer, in 1974. [8]

In 1976, the difficulties encountered in preliminary studies under Mahmood on understanding the equation of state of uranium indicated the need for a dedicated laboratory solely to that purpose. [8] Work on establishing the laboratory was initiated by the army's Engineer-in-Chief who selected Brigadier Zahid Ali Akbar to conduct the topographic survey. [9] [10] Because the experiments were deemed too dangerous to conduct in a major city, the need for the operations to be moved in an isolated and remote mountainous areas was felt by Brig. Akbar who selected Kahuta, at a short distance of the Rawalpindi. [11]

On 31 July 1976, the laboratory was established as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) with Abdul Qadeer Khan as its principle investigator. [11] The officers and personnel from the Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering (EME) were central in working and supporting the operations of the lab with Major-General Ali Nawab acting its principle engineer in 1979. [12] [13] More broadly, the ERL was intended to spur innovation and provide competition to the weapon design with the second lab in Nilore running under the PAEC's contract. [8] Under Abdul Qadeer Khan, the work on equation of state of uranium began with drs. G. D. Alam, Tasneem Shah, and Anwar Ali who served as co-principle investigators at Kahuta. [5] [14]

Initially, a large numbers of centrifuges were deployed but they were scaled down to few centrifuges after revised critical mass calculations on equation of state of uranium by Abdul Qadeer Khan and his co-investigators in 1980s. [8]

Its official name changed to Khan Research Laboratory (KRL) in 1981 by Presidential decree, which also allowed its status as a national defense laboratory. [8] [15]

Uranium research

Globally, the KRL has a prestige in conducting research into properties and behavior of uranium to learn how uranium is scaled to industrial-to-weapon-grade level and how its equation of state changes under the extreme pressure and temperature. For such investigation, principle investigators employed the Zippe method (local designation: Khan Centrifuge) that runs about 100,000 rpm on continuous at an average of 10 years.: 181  [8]

The Uranium (U92) is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water. The Natural uranium (Unat) consists of three isotopes, Uranium-238 (U238), which is 99.28% natural abundance, the Uranium-235 (U235), which is subject of interest for energy measurement available only at 0.71%, and uranium-234, with proportion of 0.0054%.: 101  [8] The Uranium-235 is fissile but at 0.71% it cannot sustain the chain reaction in a nuclear weapon environment, which requires the 90% of U235 but remains uncontrolled whose reaction takes place in a short amount of time– in a nanosecond time.: 101  [8] For this purposes, the gas centrifuge methods using the vacuum technology were established but this method took several years to master, and it was not until the 1985 when the highly enriched uranium (HEU) was first made available.: 140  [8]

The computer simulations and experiments on uranium are conducted by KRL to understand the structural, electrical, material, and chemical properties as well as uranium fused allows and to determine how these materials change over time under temperature and pressure difference. [16]

Negative publicity

The laboratory has attracted negative publicity from a number of events, mainly due to its past research affiliation with North Korea and China.: 245–246  [8] [17] In 1996, the Clinton administration accused China of approving the tender released for the KRL on the acquisition of specially-made magnetic rings for special suspension bearings mounted at the top of rotating centrifuge cylinders.: 5  [18] In 1999, a visit by the Saudi dignitaries accompanied by the Sharif administration personnel to the laboratory also garnered further negative publicity at the Western media that raised fears of proliferation in the middle east. [19]

In 2003, the Pakistani nuclear physicist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, was accused of (and later pardoned) for mishandling the classified information on the designs of the gas centrifuges to Libya, North Korea, Iran, and China in 1980s that were taken from the lab's computers.: 255  [8]

Extended research

The academic research programs and development opportunities at the KRL are supported by the physics departments of the Government College University in Lahore in Punjab and the University of Karachi in Sindh. [20] [21] The KRL supports its physics program through funding and providing scholarship to physics and engineering students at the Government College University. [22]

The continuing efforts to make the laboratories more science efficient led the Ministry of Science (MoST) to grant a three research and fellowship programmes with the Government College University with the support of Pakistan Science Foundation (PSF). [23] [24] Since 1980 at present, the KRL continues to develop the research work on computational mathematics, supercomputing and advanced mathematics to the extended applications to natural sciences. [25]

In 1999, the KRL established a research institute on computer science at Kahuta, which was later integrated to University of Engineering and Technology in Taxila. [26]

The civilian research on biotechnology, biology and Genetic Engineering is supported by the KRL at the University of Karachi, [27] with the support from Pakistan Science Foundation. [28] The KRL organized a conference on Computational biology in Islamabad to present overview of the scope of computational sciences. [29]

National security and science program

From 1976 till 1978, the lab depended heavily on the Urenco Group's method on developing the gas centrifuge, which it says to be suffering due to incomplete mechanical parts and differential equation problems involving rotational dynamics on a fixed axis.: 144  [8] Dependence on the Zippe-type was lessened when more effective and innovative methods were developed that culminated from the studies conducted under Drs. A.Q. Khan, G.D. Allam and T. S. Shah.: 139–162  [8] In Pakistan MoD laboratory system, the KRL is a senior laboratory executes missions relating to national security. [17]

The technology of krytron was also built at the KRL which was then transferred to Heavy Industries Taxila, an army laboratory based in Taxila. [3] Besides the understanding the equation of state of uranium, the KRL also embarked on pioneering work on vacuum science and its extended application in plasma physics– its first paper on plasma physics was written in 1998.[ citation needed ] In 1983, the KRL was able to acquire its very first computer numerical control (CNC) from China to provide machining of the high-strength ultracentrifuges which was able to produce the uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas that the KRL reduced to uranium metal and machined into weapon pits.: 437  [8] In 1987, the KRL began publishing a series of academic articles on numerics and computational methods for centrifuge design, including a 1987 article co-authored by Abdul Qadeer Khan on techniques for balancing sophisticated ultracentrifuge rotors. [30]

In the 1990s, the mathematicians at the KRL had built the nation's first high performance computing machines and the supercomputer that were installed installed at the facility. [5] The subcritical experiments on weapon-grade uranium began when a parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) division was established which specialized in conducting high performance computations on shock waves in weapons effect from the outer surface to the inner core by using difficult differential equations of the state of the materials used in the bomb under high pressure. [14]

The KRL was major participant in MoD's Hatf program (lit. Target). The lab served as a chief designer of the warhead design, control systems, and rocket engine development of the Hatf and Ghauri weapon systems. [17] [19]

Since the 1980s, the KRL is involved in numerous military equipment and conventional weaponry development projects. The resulting systems have been put into service by the Pakistan's military and exported to other friendly nations. The following is a list of known equipment produced under these projects: [17] [19]

Corporate management

Contract changes

The KRL is owned by the federal Government of Pakistan and sponsors the laboratory through the Ministry of Defence as its continuing efforts to make the laboratory more efficient. [33] In its early years, the Corps of Engineers had served its first prime contractor from 1976 until 1977. [14] From 1977 till 1981, the Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering served on the MoD's contract with Maj-Gen. Ali Nawab overseeing the lab's operations. [5] Since then, the lab's corporate leadership has been entrusted with civilian leadership through contracts awarded by the MoD. [5]

At the behest of the laboratory director in 1981, the tender was opened to the University of Karachi and the Government College University to oversee its operations. [5] The KRL's research and university affiliation with the University of Karachi still continues to this date. [26]

With the formation of the federal National Command Authority in 2001, the agency took over the lab's business operations when it awarded the Strategic Plans Division as KRL's prime contractor, which it has been managing the lab operation since 2004. [33]

In 2010, the Strategic Plans Division won its first contract with Malaysian Armed Forces when it was reported that the KRL was to a contractor for weapons export through the Malaysian businessman Shah Hakim Zain to export weapons to Malaysia. [34]

Notes

  1. ↑ Previously known at various times as Project-706 from 1974–76 by PAEC and later as the Engineering Research Laboratories (1976–81). It was also known as Khan Lab by U.S. Government in 2003 and Kahuta Research Laboratories (2004–08)

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdul Qadeer Khan</span> Pakistani nuclear physicist (1936–2021)

Abdul Qadeer Khan,, known as A. Q. Khan, was a Pakistani nuclear physicist and metallurgical engineer who is colloquially known as the "father of Pakistan's atomic weapons program".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghulam Ishaq Khan</span> President of Pakistan from 1988 to 1993

Ghulam Ishaq Khan, commonly known by his initials GIK, was a Pakistani bureaucrat, politician and statesman who served as the seventh president of Pakistan from 1988 to 1993. He previously served as Chairman of the Senate from 1985 to 1988 under president Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, and was sworn in shortly after Zia's death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Pakistan is one of nine states that possess nuclear weapons. Pakistan began developing nuclear weapons in January 1972 under Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who delegated the program to the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) Munir Ahmad Khan with a commitment to having the device ready by the end of 1976. Since PAEC, which consisted of over twenty laboratories and projects under reactor physicist Munir Ahmad Khan, was falling behind schedule and having considerable difficulty producing fissile material, Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgist working on centrifuge enrichment for Urenco, joined the program at the behest of the Bhutto administration by the end of 1974. Producing fissile material was pivotal to the Kahuta Project's success and thus to Pakistan obtaining the capability to detonate a nuclear weapon by the end of 1984.

The Ghauri-III was the codename of a rocket program aimed at developing land-based medium range ballistic missile to fulfill Pakistan's objective of attaining a ground-based second-strike capability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chagai-I</span> Pakistans first successful nuclear weapons test (1998)

Chagai-I is the code name of five simultaneous underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15 hrs PKT on 28 May 1998. The tests were performed at Ras Koh Hills in the Chagai District of Balochistan Province.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samar Mubarakmand</span> Pakistani nuclear physicist (born 1942)

Samar Mubarakmand is a Pakistani nuclear physicist known for his research in gamma spectroscopy and experimental development of the Charged Particle Accelerator at the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology</span> National laboratory site in Nilore, Islamabad

The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) is a federally funded research and development laboratory in Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Kahuta is a census-designated place, city and tehsil in the Rawalpindi District of Punjab, Pakistan. The population of the Kahuta Tehsil is approximately 220,576 at the 2017 census. Kahuta is the home to the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) which was founded to undertake the Kahuta Project as part of the atomic bomb project. Before the Kahuta Project, the site was occupied by retired officers of the Pakistan Army and contained a small public community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shaukat Hameed Khan</span> Pakistani optical physicist and a visiting professor

Shaukat Hameed KhanPP, PhD, FPAS, is a Pakistani optical physicist and a visiting professor of physics at the Comsats University in Islamabad. Khan is known for his understanding in spark gap and plasma-induced Lasers in ionized environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friedrich Tinner</span> Swiss nuclear engineer

Friedrich Tinner, also known as Fred Tinner or Fred Tinner-Göldi, was a Swiss nuclear engineer and a long-associated friend of Abdul Qadeer Khan—Pakistan's former top scientist—and connected with the Khan nuclear network trafficking in the proliferation of nuclear materials and gas centrifuge designs to Iran, Libya, and North Korea. In 2006, Tinner was revealed by the IAEA's investigators as the foreign director and technical head of the Libyan nuclear program. In Libya, Tinner ran the illicit nuclear experiments, using the expertise and technical information he received from his friend Khan, on behalf of the Libyan nuclear program. According to Khan, Tinner was the former researcher of the Kahuta Research Laboratories during the 1970s, when he worked there as a research scientist under the supervision of A. Q. Khan. Tinner was known and connected in particular with gas centrifuge technology used for isotopic enrichment of uranium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Munir Ahmad Khan</span> Pakistani nuclear physicist (1926–1999)

Munir Ahmad Khan, NI, HI, FPAS, was a Pakistani nuclear reactor physicist who is credited, among others, with being the "father of the atomic bomb program" of Pakistan for their leading role in developing their nation's nuclear weapons during the successive years after the war with India in 1971.

The Zippe-type centrifuge is a gas centrifuge designed to enrich the rare fissile isotope uranium-235 (235U) from the mixture of isotopes found in naturally occurring uranium compounds. The isotopic separation is based on the slight difference in mass of the isotopes. The Zippe design was originally developed in the Soviet Union by a team led by 60 Austrian and German scientists and engineers captured after World War II, working in detention. In the West the type is known by the name of the man who recreated the technology after his return to the West in 1956, based on his recollection of his work in the Soviet program, Gernot Zippe. To the extent that it might be referred to in Soviet/Russian usage by any one person's name, it was known as a Kamenev centrifuge.

Anwar Ali, is a Pakistani physicist and a computer programmer, who served as the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) from 2006 until 2009. His scientific career is spent at the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission as a computational physicist and played a key scientific role his nation's secret nuclear deterrent program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Project-706</span> Code name for Pakistans Nuclear Bomb Program

Project-706, also known as Project-786 was the codename of a research and development program to develop Pakistan's first nuclear weapons. The program was initiated by Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in 1974 in response to the Indian nuclear tests conducted in May 1974. During the course of this program, Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers developed the requisite nuclear infrastructure and gained expertise in the extraction, refining, processing and handling of fissile material with the ultimate goal of designing a nuclear device. These objectives were achieved by the early 1980s with the first successful cold test of a Pakistani nuclear device in 1983. The two institutions responsible for the execution of the program were the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission and the Kahuta Research Laboratories, led by Munir Ahmed Khan and Abdul Qadeer Khan respectively. In 1976 an organization called Special Development Works (SDW) was created within the Pakistan Army, directly under the Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan) (COAS). This organization worked closely with PAEC and KRL to secretly prepare the nuclear test sites in Baluchistan and other required civil infrastructure.

Lieutenant General Zahid Ali AkbarHI(M), SBt, PE, is a former engineering officer in the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers, known for his role in Pakistan's acquisition of nuclear weapons, and directing the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL), a top secret research facility developing the clandestine atom bomb project.

Tasneem Mohammad Shah, SI, TI, was a Pakistani scientist and a prominent mathematician who has made pioneering and instrumental research and contributions to the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) at A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories (KRL). Trained as an applied mathematician, his contributions include differential geometry, numerical analysis, information security, CFD-DEM model, hydrodynamics, computer science, fluid mechanics, Vacuum Technology and CFD-DEM.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ghulam Dastagir Alam</span> Pakistani theoretical physicist and professor

Ghulam Dastagir Alam Qasmi, was a Pakistani theoretical physicist and professor of mathematics at the Quaid-e-Azam University. Alam is best known for conceiving and embarking on research on the gas centrifuge during Pakistan's integrated atomic bomb project in the 1970s, and he also conceived the research on charge density, nuclear fission, and gamma-ray bursts throughout his career.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercomputing in Pakistan</span> Overview of supercomputing in Pakistan

The high performance supercomputing program started in mid-to-late 1980s in Pakistan. Supercomputing is a recent area of Computer science in which Pakistan has made progress, driven in part by the growth of the information technology age in the country. Developing on the ingenious supercomputer program started in 1980s when the deployment of the Cray supercomputers was initially denied.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syed Ali Nawab</span> Pakistani general

Major-General Syed Ali Nawab(HI 1979, SBt, TPk, PE), was an engineering officer in the Pakistan Army Corps of EME, and a mechanical engineer with an MIMechE from UK and two bachelor's degrees, one in Electrical Engineering, and the other in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU). He was known for his classified works in the development of atomic bomb at PAEC and the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) in the 1970s.

Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology commonly known as KICSIT is a sub-campus of Institute of Space Technology located in Kahuta, Rawalpindi, Punjab.Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology (KICSIT), Kahuta was inaugurated in November 2000 by Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, the founder and then Chairman of KRL.

References

  1. ↑ Aziz, Shaikh (26 July 2015). "A leaf from history: Defending Kahuta". DAWN.COM.
  2. ↑ Originally, the concept was conceived during the post-1971 war, and the programme was launched in 1974 under the codename "Project-706". In 1976, the laboratories was founded in 1976 as a highly sensitive, centralized, and secretive facility to coordinate the scientific research for the clandestine atomic bomb project. The laboratories were founded by Abdul Qadeer Khan who served its senior scientist at first, and was built under the engineering management of the Corps of Engineers. Since 1976, the laboratories has been multiply referred as to "Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL)"; the "Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL)"; Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories (also KRL)" or alternatively denoted as "Khan Labs"
  3. 1 2 3 4 Moltz, Sarah J. Diehl, James Clay (2008). Nuclear weapons and nonproliferation : a reference handbook (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1598840711.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ "Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) | Facilities | NTI". www.nti.org.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Khan, A. Q. (8 September 2014). "Unsung heroes Part X". News International, Part X. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014.
  6. 1 2 Pike, John. "Kahuta: Pakistan's Special Labs". Tuesday, May 16, 2000 12:00:01 AM. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
  7. ↑ "Sample Preparation Facilities". GC University Press. Archived from the original on 7 March 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Khan, Feroz Hassan (2012). Eating grass : the making of the Pakistan bomb. Stanford, Calif. [u.s]: Stanford University Press. p. 521. ISBN   9780804776004 . Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  9. ↑ Khan, Abdul Qadeer (29 July 2009). "Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Kahuta". The News International, 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  10. ↑ Babar (M.Sc Civil Engineering), Farhatullah. "Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and the atomic bomb project". Pakistan Peoples Party, (Directorate-General for the Public Relations and Media Broadcasting Publications). Directorate-General for the Public Relations and Media Broadcasting Publications. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  11. 1 2 Koelbl, Susanne (28 June 2011). "'We May Be Naive, But We Are Not Idiots', Pakistan Nuclear Development". Spiegel Online . Susanne Koelbl of the Spiegel Online. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  12. ↑ "Unsung heroes part XVI". Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  13. ↑ "Unsung heroes part XV". Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  14. 1 2 3 From the Memoirs of Dr. A.Q. Khan (22 September 2014). "Part XII". News International. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  15. ↑ Pike, John. "Kahuta: Khan Research Laboratories: A.Q. Khan Laboratories: Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL)". The Federation of American Scientists (Updated Tuesday, May 16, 2000 12:00:01 AM ). Federation of American Scientists (FAS). Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  16. ↑ Ghazi, A.A.; Qamar, S.; Atta, M.A. (1994). "Uranium spectra in the ICP". Spectrochimica Acta Part B. 49B (5): 527–531. Bibcode:1994AcSpe..49..527G. doi:10.1016/0584-8547(94)80043-X. ISSN   0584-8547 . Retrieved 30 January 2024.
  17. 1 2 3 4 "Kahuta - Pakistan Special Weapons Facilities". www.globalsecurity.org.
  18. ↑ Kan, Shirley A. (2009). "§A.Q. Khan's nuclear network". China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy issues. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service (CRS): Congressional Research Service (CRS). pp. 5–6. ISBN Congressional Research Service (CRS).
  19. 1 2 3 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 8 February 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ↑ "Physics – GC University, Lahore" . Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  21. ↑ "Department of Physics, Karachi University". uok.edu.pk. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  22. ↑ "Salam Chair in Physics, Department of Physics". GC University Press release. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  23. ↑ GCU. "Department of Physics, KRL". Government College University. Department of Physics and Mathematics (GCU). Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  24. ↑ GCU. "Abdus Salam Chair in Physics in KRL". Government College University. Abdus Salam Chair in Physic (GCU). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  25. ↑ Techmoot. "Tasneem Shah of KRL". Techmoot. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  26. 1 2 staff. "Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology". Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  27. ↑ staff. "DR. A. Q. Khan Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering". Karachi University Press. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  28. ↑ staff correspondents (28 October 2013). "Stressing Science". Express Tribune, 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2014.{{cite news}}: |last1= has generic name (help)
  29. ↑ News Desk (22 October 2013). "Conference: Students advised to adopt modern research techniques". Express News. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  30. ↑ Upadhyaya, Gopal S. (2011). "§Dr. A.Q. Khan of Pakistan". Men of Metals and Materials: My Memoires. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: iUniverse.com. p. 248pp. ISBN   9698500006.
  31. ↑ "Work on EVM project to be done in phases". The Nation. 21 December 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  32. ↑ "ECP to use KRL Voting Machines instead of NADRA's biometric system & electronic voting machines - video Dailymotion". Dailymotion. 30 September 2014.
  33. 1 2 PA, Pakistan Army. "KAK Bridge to KRL". Frontier Works Organizations (1989). Directorate of Inter-Services Public Relations. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  34. ↑ "Malaysia Today Article". Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.