The Lancelot-Grail Cycle, also known as the Vulgate Cycle or the Pseudo-Map Cycle, is an early 13th-century French Arthurianliterary cycle consisting of interconnected prose episodes of chivalric romance originally written in Old French. The work of unknown authorship, presenting itself as a chronicle of actual events, retells the legend of King Arthur by focusing on the love affair between Lancelot and Guinevere, the religious quest for the Holy Grail, and the life of Merlin. The highly influential cycle expands on Robert de Boron's "Little Grail Cycle" and the works of Chrétien de Troyes, previously unrelated to each other, by supplementing them with additional details and side stories, as well as lengthy continuations, while tying the entire narrative together into a coherent single tale.
There is no unity of place within the narrative, but most of the episodes take place in Arthur's kingdom of Logres. One of the main characters is Arthur himself, around whom gravitates a host of other heroes, many of whom are Knights of the Round Table. The chief of them is the famed Lancelot, whose chivalric tale is centered around his illicit romance with Arthur's wife, Queen Guinevere. However, the cycle also tells of adventures of a more spiritual type. Most prominently, they involve the Holy Grail, the vessel that contained the blood of Christ, which is searched for by many members of the Round Table until Lancelot's son Galahad ultimately emerges as the winner of this sacred journey. Other major plotlines include the accounts of the life of Merlin and of the rise and fall of Arthur.
After its completion around 1230–1235, the Lancelot–Grail was soon followed by its major reworking known as the Post-Vulgate Cycle. Together, the two prose cycles with their abundance of characters and stories represent a major source of the legend of Arthur as they constituted the most widespread form of Arthurian literature of the late medieval period, during which they were both translated into multiple European languages and rewritten into alternative variants, including having been partially turned into verse. They also inspired various later works of Arthurian romance, eventually contributing the most to the compilation Le Morte d'Arthur that formed the basis for a modern canon of Arthuriana that is still prevalent today.
Title
The Lancelot-Grail is a modern title invented by Ferdinand Lot.[1] The Vulgate Cycle (also known as the Vulgate Version of Arthurian Romances), from the Latin editio vulgata,[2] "common version", is another modern title that was popularised (albeit not invented[3]) by H. Oskar Sommer. The title Pseudo-Map Cycle is named so after Walter Map, the work's pseudo-author. Its alternate titles include Philippe Walter's 21st-century edition Le Livre du Graal ("The Book of the Grail").
The Vulgate Cycle emphasizes Christian themes in the legend of King Arthur, in particular in the story of the Holy Grail. As in Robert de Boron's poem Merlin (c.1195–1210), the cycle states that its first parts have been derived from the Livre du Graal ("The Book of the Grail") that is described as a text dictated by Merlin himself to his confessor Blaise[fr] in the early years of Arthur's reign. Next, following the demise of Merlin, there are more supposed original (fictitious) authors of the later parts of the cycle, the following list using one of their multiple spelling variants: Arodiens de Cologne (Arodian of Cologne), Tantalides de Vergeaus (Tantalides of Vercelli), Thumas de Toulete (Thomas of Toledo), and Sapiens de Baudas (Sapient of Baghdad).[4] These characters are described as the scribes in service of Arthur who recorded the deeds of the Knights of the Round Table, including the grand Grail Quest, as relayed to them by the eyewitnesses of the events beings told in the story. It is uncertain whether the medieval readers actually believed in the truthfulness of the centuries-old "chronicle" characterisation or if they recognised it as a contemporary work of creative fiction.[5]
Welsh writer Gautier (Walter) Map (c.1140– c.1209) is attributed to be the editing author, as can be seen in the notes and illustrations in some manuscripts describing his discovery in an archive at Salisbury of the chronicle of Camelot, supposedly dating from the times of Arthur, and his translation of these documents from Latin to Old French as ordered by Henry II of England[6] (the location was changed from Salisbury to the mystical Avalon in a later Welsh redaction[7]). Map's connection has been discounted by modern scholarship, however, as he died too early to be the author and the work is distinctly continental.[8][9][10]
The cycle's actual authorship is unknown, but most scholars today believe it was written by multiple authors. There might have been either a single master-mind planner, the so-called "architect" (as first called so by Jean Frappier, who compared the process to building a cathedral[11]), who may have written the main section (Lancelot Proper), and then overseen the work of multiple other anonymous scribes.[12][13] One theory identified the initiator as French queen Eleanor of Aquitaine, who would have set up the project already in 1194.[14][15][16] Alternately, each part may have been composed separately, arranged gradually, and rewritten for consistency and cohesiveness. Regarding the question of the author of the Lancelot, Ferdinand Lot suggested an anonymous clerical court clerk of aristocratic background.[17]
Today it is believed by some (such as editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica[18]) that a group of anonymous French Catholic monks wrote the cycle–or at least the Queste part (where, according to Fanni Bogdanow, the text's main purpose is to convince sinners to repent[19]). The evidence of this would be its very Cistercian spirit of Christian mysticism (with Augustinian intrusions[20]), including the Cistercian Saint Aelred of Rievaulx's idea of "spiritual friendship" seen in the interactions between the Grail knights (Galahad, Percival, and Bors).[21] Others doubt this, however, and a compromise theory postulates a more secular writer who had spent some time in a Cistercian monastery.[22]Richard Barber described the Cistercian theology of the Queste as unconventional and complex but subtle, noting its success in appealing to the courtly audience accustomed to more secular romances.[23]
Structure, history and synopsis
This section needs expansionwith: more detailed synopsis for each branch of the cycle. You can help by adding to it. (August 2023)
The Lancelot-Grail Cycle may be divided into three[18] main branches, although more usually into five,[24] with the romances Queste and Mort regarded as separate from the Vulgate Lancelot (the latter possibly initially standalone in the original so-called "short version").[25] In particular, the Lancelot, the Queste and the Morte are 'so divergent as to leave no doubt that they are the work of different authors'.[26] The story of Lancelot was actually the first to be written (beginning c.1210–1215).[18][27] The stories of Joseph and Merlin joined the cycle late (before c.1235), serving as "prequels" to the main story.[28]
The cycle has a narrative structure close to that of a modern novel in which multiple overlapping events featuring different characters may simultaneously develop in parallel and intertwine with each other through the technique known as interlace (French: entrelacement). Narrative interlacing is most prominent in the Queste, a literary technique used by modern authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien.
The History of the Holy Grail
An illustration for a c.1220 early manuscript of the Estoire del saint Graal (MS 255, Bibliothèque Municipale de Rennes)
The Vulgate Estoire del Saint Graal (Story of the Holy Grail) is the religious tale of early Christian Joseph of Arimathea and how his son Josephus brought the Holy Grail to Britain from the Holy Land. Set several centuries prior to the main story, it is derived from Robert de Boron's poem Joseph d'Arimathie[fr] with new characters and episodes added.
The History of Merlin
The VulgateEstoire de Merlin (Story of Merlin), or just the Vulgate Merlin, concerns Merlin's complicated conception and childhood and the early life of Arthur, which Merlin has influence over. It is a redaction of the Prose Merlin, itself a conversion of Robert de Boron's poem by the same title. It can be divided into:
The Vulgate Merlin propre (Merlin Proper), also known as Le Roman de Merlin (The Novel of Merlin), directly based on Robert's Merlin.
The Vulgate Suite du Merlin (Continuation of Merlin) / Suite Vulgate du Merlin / Vulgate-Suite, also known as Les Premiers Faits [du roi Arthur][29] (The First Acts of King Arthur) or the Vulgate Merlin Continuation. Drawing from a variety of other sources, it adds more of Arthur's and Gawain's early deeds in which they are being aided by Merlin, in particular in their early wars of internal struggles for power and against foreign enemies (Saxons and Romans), ending in Arthur's marriage with Guinevere and the restoration of peace, as well as the disappearance of Merlin caused by the Lady of the Lake. It is roughly four times longer than the first part.
A distinctively alternate revision of the Suite du Merlin, found in a single massive yet fragmentary manuscript (BNF fr. 337) dating from after 1230 (contemporary to the Post-Vulgate Cycle) and possibly even the late 13th century,[30] is known as Le Livre d'Artus (The Book of Arthur), as named by H. Oskar Sommer. It was published by Sommer as a supplement to his edition of the Vulgate Cycle, but Carol Dover classified it as actually belonging to the Post-Vulgate Cycle.[31] Conversely, Fanni Bogdanow and Richard Trachsler considered it a text continued from the Vulgate Merlin that would be followed by a hypothetical similarly revised variant of the Vulgate Lancelot,[32] and Helen Nicholson wrote about it as a third different sequel to Robert's Merlin in addition to the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate versions.[33] Contrary to the title given to the work by Sommer, its principal hero is Gawain.[34] It incorporates elements of some Arthurian romances written after the Vulgate Cycle had been completed.[35]
The cycle's centerpiece part Lancelot en prose, also known the Estoire de Lancelot (Story of Lancelot) or Le Livre de Lancelot du Lac (The Life of Lancelot of the Lake), follows the adventures of the eponymous hero as well as many other Knights of the Round Table during the later years of King Arthur's reign up until the appearance of Galahad and the start of the Grail Quest. The separate parts of the Lancelot–Queste–Mort Artu trilogy differ greatly in tone, the first (composed c.1215–1220) can be characterized as colorful, the second (c.1220–1225) as pious, and the third (c.1225–1230) as sober:[6][36]
The Vulgate Lancelot propre (Lancelot Proper), also known as Le Roman de Lancelot (The Novel of Lancelot) or just Lancelot du Lac, is the longest part, making up fully half of the entire cycle.[28] It is inspired by and in part based on Chrétien's poem Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette (Lancelot, or the Knight of the Cart).[37] It primarily deals with a series of episodes of Lancelot's early life and with the courtly love between him and Queen Guinevere, as well as his deep friendship with Galehaut, interlaced with the adventures of Gawain and other knights such as Yvain, Hector, Lionel, and Bors. The Lancelot Proper is regarded as having been written first in the cycle.[17] The actual [Conte de la] Charrette ("[Tale of the] Cart"), an incorporation of a prose rendition of Chrétien's poem, spans only a small part of the Vulgate text.[38]
Due to its length, modern scholars often divide the Lancelot into various sub-sections, including the Enfances Lancelot ("Lancelot's youth") or Galehaut (sometimes Galeaut), further split between the Charrette and its follow-up the Suite de la Charette (Continuation of the Charrette); the Agravain (named after Gawain's brother Agravain, possibly a later addition to the work[39]); and the Preparation for the Quest, linking the previous ones.[40][41][42][43] It was perhaps originally an independent romance that would begin with Lancelot's birth and finish with a happy ending for him, discovering his true identity and receiving a kiss from Guinevere when he confesses his love for her.[12][44]Elspeth Kennedy identified the possible non-cyclic Prose Lancelot in an early manuscript known as the BNF fr. 768. It is about three times shorter than the later editions and notably the Grail Quest (usually taking place later) is mentioned within the text as already having been completed by Perceval alone.[17][45][46]
The Quest for the Holy Grail
The Vulgate Queste del Saint Graal (Quest for the Holy Grail), also known as Les Aventures ou La Queste del Saint Graal (The Adventures or The Quest for the Holy Grail) or just the Vulgate Queste, is, like the Estoire del Saint Graal, another highly religious part of the cycle. It relates how the Grail Quest is undertaken by various knights including Perceval and Bors, and achieved by Lancelot's son Galahad, the perfect holy knight who here replaces both Lancelot and Perceval as the chosen hero.[28] Their interlacing adventures are purported to be narrated by Bors, the witness of these events after the deaths of Galahad and Perceval.[47] It is the most innovative part of the cycle as it was not derived from any known earlier stories, including the creation of the character of Galahad as a major new Arthurian hero.
The Death of King Arthur
The Vulgate Mort le roi Artu (Death of King Arthur), also known as La Mort le Roy Artus or just the Vulgate Mort Artu / La Mort Artu, a tragic account of further wars culminating in the king and his illegitimate son Mordred killing each other in a near-complete rewrite of the Arthurian chronicle tradition from the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth and his redactors. It is also connected with the so-called "Mort Artu" epilogue section of the Didot Perceval[fr], a text uncertainly attributed to Robert de Boron, and which itself was based on Wace's Roman de Brut.[48] In a new motif, the ruin of Arthur's kingdom is presented as the disastrous direct consequence of the sin of Lancelot's and Guinevere's adulterous affair.[28] Lancelot eventually dies too, as do the other protagonists who did not die in the Queste, leaving only Bors as a survivor of the Round Table. The mortally wounded Arthur is put on a barge commanded by his sister, Morgan, and taken to an uncertain destiny.
Manuscripts
Yvain helping his lion fight a dragon in a 14th-century Italian illumination (BNF fr. 343 Queste del Saint Graal)
As the stories of the cycle were immensely popular in medieval France and neighboring countries between the beginning of the 13th and the beginning of the 16th century, they survived in some two hundred manuscripts in various forms[25][49] (not counting printed books since the late 15th century, starting with Jean le Bourgeois and Jean Dupré's edition of the Lancelot printed in Paris in 1488). The Lancelot-Graal Project website lists (and links to the scans of many of them) close to 150 manuscripts in French,[50] some fragmentary, others, such as British Library Add MS 10292–10294, containing the entire cycle. Besides the British Library, scans of various manuscripts can be seen online through digital library websites of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France's Gallica[51] (including these from the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal) and the University of Oxford's Digital Bodleian; many illustrations can also be found at the IRHT's Initiale project.[52] The earliest copies are of French origin and date from 1220 to 1230.
Numerous copies were produced in French throughout the remainder of the 13th, 14th and well into the 15th centuries in France, England and Italy, as well as translations into other European languages. Some of the manuscripts are richly illuminated: British Library Royal MS 14 E III, produced in Northern France in the early 14th century and once owned by King Charles V of France, contains over 100 miniatures with gilding throughout and decorated borders at the beginning of each section.[53] Other manuscripts were made for less wealthy owners and contain very little or no decoration, for example British Library MS Royal 19 B VII, produced in England, also in the early 14th century, with initials in red and blue marking sections in the text and larger decorated initials at chapter-breaks.[54] One notable manuscript is known as the Rochefoucauld Grail.
However, very few copies of the entire Lancelot-Grail Cycle survive. Perhaps because it was so vast, copies were made of parts of the legend which may have suited the tastes of certain patrons, with popular combinations containing only the tales of either Merlin or Lancelot.[55][56] For instance, British Library Royal 14 E III contains the sections which deal with the Grail and religious themes, omitting the middle section, which relates Lancelot's chivalric exploits.
The Vulgate Cycle was soon afterwards subject to a major revision during the 1230s, in which much was left out and much added. In the resulting far-shorter Post-Vulgate Cycle, also known as the Roman du Graal, Lancelot is no longer the central character. The Post-Vulgate omits almost all of the Lancelot Proper (except these included in some incomplete surviving fragments, including the French La Folie Lancelot[57]), and consequently most of Lancelot and Guinevere's content, instead focusing on the Grail Quest.[28] It also borrows characters and episodes from the first version of the Prose Tristan (1220), making Tristan one of the main characters.
Other reworkings and influence
The second version of the Prose Tristan (1240) itself partially incorporated the Vulgate Cycle by copying parts of it.[37][58] Along with the Prose Tristan, both the Post-Vulgate and the Vulgate original were among the most important sources for Thomas Malory's seminal English compilation of Arthurian legend, Le Morte d'Arthur (1470),[28][3] which has become a template for many modern works.
The 14th-century English poem Stanzaic Morte Arthur is a compressed verse translation of the Vulgate Mort Artu. In the 15th-century Scotland, the first part of the Vulgate Lancelot was turned into verse in Lancelot of the Laik, a romance love poem with political messages.[59] In the 15th-century England, Henry Lovelich's poem Merlin and the verse romance Of Arthour and of Merlin were based on the Vulgate Merlin and the Merlin Continuation.
Outside Britain, the Vulgate Merlin was retold in Germany by Albrecht von Scharfenberg in his lost Der Theure Mörlin, preserved over 100 years later in the "Mörlin" part of Ulrich Fuetrer's Buch von Abenteuer (1471). Jacob van Maerlant's Dutch translation of the Merlin added some original content in his Merlijns Boek also known as Historie von Merlijn (1261), as did the Italian writer Paolino Pieri in the Storia di Merlino (1320). The Dutch Lancelot Compilation (1320) added an original romance to a translation of the Prose Lancelot. The Italian Vita de Merlino con le suo Prophetie also known as the Historia di Merlino (1379) was loosely adapted from the Vulgate Merlin.
The cycle's elements and characters have been also incorporated into various other works in France, such as Les Prophecies de Mérlin (or the Prophéties de Merlin) and Palamedes, and elsewhere. Some episodes from the Vulgate Cycle have been adapted into the Third and Fourth Continuations of Chrétien's unfinished Perceval, the Story of the Grail.[60] Other legacy can be found in the many so-called "pseudo-Arthurian" works in Spain and Portugal.[61]
Modern editions and translations
Oskar Sommer
H. Oskar Sommer published the entire original French text of the Vulgate Cycle in seven volumes in the years 1908–1916. Sommer's has been the only complete cycle published as of 2004.[62] The base text used was the British Library Add MS 10292–10294. It is however not a critical edition, but a composite text, where variant readings from alternate manuscripts are unreliably demarcated using square brackets.
Sommer, H. Oskar. (ed.). The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances
Volume 1 of 8 (1909): Lestoire del Saint Graal.
Volume 2 of 8 (1908): Lestoire de Merlin.
Volume 3 of 8 (1910): Le livre de Lancelot del Lac, Part I.
Volume 4 of 8 (1911): Le livre de Lancelot del Lac, Part II.
Volume 5 of 8 (1912): Le livre de Lancelot del Lac, Part III.
Volume 6 of 8 (1913): Les aventures ou la queste del Saint Graal, La mort le roi Artus.
Volume 7 of 8 (1913): Supplement: Le livre d'Artus, with glossary
Volume 8 of 8 (1916): Index of names and places to volumes I-VII
Norris J. Lacy
The first full English translations of the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate cycles were overseen by Norris J. Lacy.
Lacy, Norris J. (ed.). Lancelot–Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation. New York: Garland.
Volume 1 of 5 (1 December 1992). ISBN0-8240-7733-4: The History of the Holy Grail and The Story of Merlin.
Volume 2 of 5 (1 August 1993). ISBN0-8153-0746-2: Lancelot, Parts I, II and III
Volume 3 of 5 (1 March 1995). ISBN0-8153-0747-0: Lancelot, Parts IV, V, VI.
Volume 4 of 5 (1 April 1995). ISBN0-8153-0748-9: The Quest for the Holy Grail, The Death of Arthur, and The Post-Vulgate, Part I: The Merlin Continuation
Volume 5 of 5 (1 May 1996). ISBN0-8153-0757-8: The Post-Vulgate, Parts I-III: The Merlin Continuation (end), The Quest for the Holy Grail, The Death of Arthur, Chapter Summaries and Index of Proper Names
Lacy, Norris J. (ed.). The Lancelot-Grail Reader: Selections from the Medieval French Arthurian Cycle (2000). New York: Garland. ISBN0-8153-3419-2
Lacy, Norris J. (ed.). Lancelot–Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer.
A modern French translation of the Vulgate Cycle in three volumes:
Poirion, Daniel. (ed.) Le Livre du Graal, Paris: Gallimard[63]
Volume 1 of 3 (2001): ISBN978-2-07-011342-2: Joseph d'Arimathie, Merlin, Les Premiers Faits du roi Arthur.
Volume 2 of 3 (2003): ISBN978-2-07-011344-6: Lancelot De La Marche de Gaule à La Première Partie de la quête de Lancelot.
Volume 3 of 3 (2009): ISBN978-2-07-011343-9: Lancelot: La Seconde Partie de la quête de Lancelot, La Quête du saint Graal, La Mort du roi Arthur.
Other
Penguin Classics published a translation into English by Pauline Matarasso of the Queste as The Quest of the Holy Grail in 1969.[64] It was followed in 1971 with a translation by James Cable of the Mort Artu as The Death of King Arthur.[65]
Brepols published the original Old French text of the Mort Artu ( ISBN978-2-503-51676-9) in 2008 and the Queste ( ISBN978-2-503-51678-3) in 2012, both based on MS Yale 229 and edited by Elizabeth M. Willingham with annotations in English, under the series The Illustrated Prose Lancelot.
Judith Shoaf's modern English translation of the Vulgate Queste was published by Broadview Press as The Quest for the Holy Grail in 2018 ( ISBN978-1-55481-376-6). It contains many footnotes explaining its connections with other works of Arthurian literature.[66]
↑ Barber, Richard (2003). "Chivalry, Cistercianism and the Grail". A Companion to the Lancelot-Grail Cycle. Boydell & Brewer. pp.3–12. ISBN9780859917834. JSTOR10.7722/j.ctt9qdj80.7.
Lacy, Norris J., ed. (2010). The History of the Holy Grail. Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation. Vol.1. Translated by Chase, Carol J. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer. ISBN9781843842248.
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