List of abbreviations in photography

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During most of the 20th century photography depended mainly upon the photochemical technology of silver halide emulsions on glass plates or roll film. [1] Early in the 21st century this technology was displaced by the electronic technology of digital cameras. The development of digital image sensors, microprocessors, memory cards, miniaturised devices and image editing software enabled these cameras to offer their users a much wider range of operating options than was possible with the older silver halide technology. [2] [3] This has led to a proliferation of new abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms. The commonest of these are listed below. Some are used in related fields of optics and electronics but many are specific to digital photography.

Contents

Acronyms and initialisms that are not brand-specific

A or Av Aperture priority or Aperture value . Automatic exposure mode where the photographer sets the lens f-stop and the AE firmware sets the shutter speed. [4]
AE Automatic exposure . Hardware and software ("firmware"), built into the camera, measures luminance of the subject and automatically sets shutter speed, lens aperture or sensitivity; this also allows the camera to set the aperture for manual lenses fixed with an AE chip. [4]
AE-L or AELAutomatic exposure lock. Technology for holding an exposure setting from one scene to another. [4]
AF Autofocus . The lens is focused automatically by means of the camera's hardware and firmware, to obtain optimum sharpness of an image. [4]
AF-L or AFLAutofocus lock. Locks a particular focus setting, preventing refocusing if the scene changes. [4]
AoV Angle of view. Describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera.
APEX Additive system of photographic exposure . A system to aid calculation of correct exposures, developed in the 1960s. Some aspects are included in Exif. [5]
APS-C A film format defined by the Advanced Photo System as 25.1 × 16.7 mm. Different manufacturers use this term for image sensors measuring between about 20.7 × 13.8 mm to 28.7 × 19.1 mm. This format has an approximate ratio of 1.5 : 1.
ASAThe American Standards Association (now called the American National Standards Institute, ANSI) defined the ASA system for rating the speed sensitivity of photographic emulsions; now superseded by the ISO system. [4]
AWB Automatic white balance . A setting that uses the camera's hardware and firmware to estimate the colour temperature of the scene. [6]
C1 Capture One , a software application for processing images from digital cameras. Developed by Phase One.
CA Chromatic aberration . Failure of a lens to focus all colours at the same point. [2] The aberrations can be along the optical axis (Longitudinal CA, or LoCA) or off-axis (Lateral or Transverse CA, TCA). [7]
CCD Charge-coupled device . A semiconductor technology, used to create photosensor arrays for some digital cameras. [8]
CDAF Contrast-detection autofocus . One of the mechanisms of automatic lens focusing.
CL Camera left . Similar CR is camera right, slang
CIF Catch in focus . A technique for allowing a camera to be pre-focussed to a defined spot, and the exposure is only made when a subject is in focus at that spot. Also called trap focus.
CMOS Complementary metal oxide semiconductor . A semiconductor technology, used to create photosensor arrays for some digital cameras. [4]
CMYK CMYK color model . A subtractive process for color printing that utilises cyan, magenta, yellow and black inks to create most printable colors. (Some colors can not be accurately reproduced using this system and require the use of "spot color" to be used. See also: Pantone Matching System.) Some other printable colors can be reproduced using Hexachrome color model which adds orange and green to the base CMYK color model. (CMYKOG) It is possible to omit black ink, in which case the process is termed CMY. [9]
CP, CPL, or CPoL Circular polarizing filter .
CSCCompact system camera. Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera, smaller than a digital single-lens reflex camera.
DCF Design rule for Camera File system . A digital camera file system standard; JEITA number CP-3461. [10]
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung . A logarithmic system for expressing film speed in common use in Europe since 1934. Now combined with the ASA linear system, in the form of the ISO system. [4]
DOF or DoF Depth of field . A measure of the permissible distance within which an object remains in acceptable, though not perfect, focus. [11] Calculations of DOF assume that an imperfectly focused "circle of confusion" smaller than 0.20 to 0.25 mm is indistinguishable from perfect focus in an image viewed from a normal distance. [7] [12] This is approximately equivalent to 0.03 mm in the case of an image on 35 mm film or FF format. [13]
DPI Dots per inch . A measure of the ability of a printer or scanner to handle fine detail. [8]
DR Dynamic range . Expresses the luminance range of a scene, a captured image or the maximum range of luminance that a camera can successfully capture at one setting. It is often used imprecisely, but can sometimes be quantified as a ratio. [9] The term contrast ratio may be preferred for the luminance range in a scene. [14]
DSC Digital Still Camera . Prefix on image filenames produced by various digital cameras.
DSLR Digital single-lens reflex camera ; also dSLR. [2]
ED Extra low dispersion glass . Used in composite lenses to reduce chromatic aberration. One of a class of special glasses, including anomalous dispersion (AD), special low dispersion (SLD) and extraordinary low dispersion (ELD) glass, used in place of fluorite. [7]
EFC, EFCS or EFSC Electronic first curtain , electronic front curtain, electronic first curtain shutter , electronic first shutter curtain of a focal plane shutter.
EV Exposure value . A system for indicating correct exposure in which the shutter speed and f-number are related arithmetically. [4] [15]
EVF Electronic viewfinder . The through-the-lens view is displayed on a miniature solid-state screen, rather than on an optical screen or view. [2]
EVIL Electronic viewfinder interchangeable lens camera . See also MILC, mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera. [16]
Exif Exchangeable image file format . A standard format for tag data in digital camera files. [10]
f f-number, f-stop . The numerical value of a lens aperture. The ratio of the focal length of the lens divided by its effective aperture diameter. [4]
FF Full frame , where the image sensor is approximately the same size as a 35 mm film: 36 × 24 mm.
FP Focal plane . A shutter that opens and closes near to the film or image sensor, usually as a fast-moving slit, as contrasted with a bladed/leaf shutter located near a nodal point of a lens. [12]
FPA Focal plane array . A matrix of sensors positioned in the focal plane of a lens or other focusing device. [12]
FPS Frames per second . Used in reference to maximum continuous shooting rate or video. [17]
GIF Graphics Interchange Format . A computer file format for coloured images, restricted to 256 colours and useful for small file-size. [8]
GN Guide number . A value indicating the power of an electronic flash apparatus, and used to estimate exposure. GN = distance × f-number. One needs to specify the film or sensor ISO speed, and it is conventional to quote for ISO 100/21°. The distance can be in feet or in metres, the units to be specified. [4]
GND Graduated neutral density . A type of neutral density filter in which brightness is reduced more on one side of the filter than on the other, allowing the photographer to reduce the contrast between, for example, bright sky and dark land.
HDR High dynamic range . Techniques that allow a digital image to show a wider contrast range than current image sensors can record in one file. Some cameras have firmware to do the processing. [10]
ICM Intentional camera movement . The camera or the focus or zoom of its lens is adjusted by the photographer during an exposure in order to achieve special or artistic effects.
IPSIn-Person Sales The practice of meeting with your clients in-person to show and sell your photographs, rather than simply providing them with access to an online gallery.
IQ Image quality . An informal abbreviation used in discussion forums. Usually subjective, though some studies have analysed mathematically quantifiable components of image quality. [18]
IR Infrared . The electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than about 700 nm and not visible to the human eye. [19]
IS Image stabilization . Technology to minimize image blurring by camera movement during exposure. See also AS, OS, OIS, OSS, SR, SS, SSI, SSS, VR as brand-specific terms. [10]
ISOA system for quantifying the sensitivity ("speed") of a photographic emulsion, or a solid-state digital-camera's image sensor, to visible light. Normally followed by a numerical value, e.g.: ISO 100 or ISO 64/19°. Developed from the ASA and the DIN systems by the International Organization for Standardization . [4]
JPEGA format designed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group , that allows files of coloured images to be compressed to a smaller digital file than if the full range of colours were to be saved. Also .JPG as a computer file extension. [8]
LBALens buying addiction. Usually used in a jocular sense on camera forums, about a wish to add to an already extensive collection of interchangeable lenses.
LCAAn ambiguous abbreviation that should be avoided. Some writers use it to mean lateral (transverse) chromatic aberration, TCA, while others use it to mean longitudinal (axial) chromatic aberration, LoCA.
LCD Liquid crystal display . A technology often used in the monitor screens of digital cameras, etc. [4] [11]
LED Light-emitting diode . Semiconductor technology to convert electrical energy into light efficiently. Quasi-white and a range of colours, as well as infrared are possible. [4]
LoCA Longitudinal (axial) chromatic aberration. [7] [12]
LR Lightroom , a software application for processing images from digital cameras. Developed by Adobe. [20]
MC Multi-coating or multi-coated. Anti-reflection coating of lenses to reduce transmission losses. May also stand for meter coupling or meter-coupled lenses. Whilst being a generic term, the designation in the latter meaning is mostly used to describe a generation of Minolta SR-mount lenses implementing this feature.
MDF or MFDMinimum Focusing Distance. Minimum distance from which a lens can shoot a subject.
MF Manual focus . The photographer adjusts the lens to obtain the image sharpness required, as opposed to AF. [21] Alternative meaning: Medium Format . A size of film or image sensor somewhat larger than the 35mm film standard of 36 × 24 mm.
MILC Mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera . Similar to a digital single-lens reflex camera, but having an electronic or rangefinder type of viewfinder in place of the mirror and pentaprism, to allow a more compact design. See also EVIL camera.
MTF Modulation transfer function . A technical measure of the ability of a lens to create a finely detailed image. [4] Several types of specialized apparatus are available to get the basic data on a lens and to analyse it. The calculated performance may be presented in various ways. [7]
ND Neutral density . A neutral-grey pre-lens filter to reduce overall brightness without altering colour balance. [4] [11]
NR Noise reduction . Digital noise reduction through firmware processing or editing the digitized image.
OCF Off-camera flash .
OOF or OoF Out of focus, Out of Frame .
OVF Optical viewfinder . The picture is framed on the focusing screen of a through-the-lens optical viewfinder, as found on [D]SLR cameras, or in a look-through-viewfinder, as found on rangefinder cameras.
PC Prontor-Compur . A 3.5 mm coaxial camera jack named PC terminal, to synchronize external non-dedicated flashes (f.e. studio flashes), found on many more advanced camera models. Also may mean "Perspective Control" for a lens that has the ability to shift to tilt to control linear perspective in an image. May also stand for personal computer in conjunction with digital photography.
PDAF Phase-detection autofocus . One of the mechanisms of automatic lens focusing.
PF Purple fringing . A form of chromatic aberration in which a purple-violet haze degrades high contrast edges or over-saturated highlights. Some models of lens are widely criticised for this fault, though there are suggestions that it might also be due to properties of digital sensors. [22]
PNG Portable Network Graphics . A computer file format for compressed coloured images useful for small file-size.
P&S Point-and-shoot camera . Slang for a small or compact camera that is easy to use because the essential functions are automated. Popular, but with limitations compared with more advanced cameras such as DSLR cameras with larger image sensors.
PPI PixelsPerInch . The number of pixels or picture elements contained in one linear inch in a digitally stored image.
PS, PSE Photoshop , Photoshop Elements . Commercial computer applications developed by Adobe for editing digital images. [20]
RGB RGB color space . An additive colour space that uses the primary colours of red, green and blue to create any colour. There are several variants: sRGB, ISO RGB and some proprietary standards. Used mainly in colour displays: computer monitors, digital cameras, etc. [9]
RP Resolving power . Usual meaning is the reciprocal of the distance between two just-distinguishable subject details. [7]
S or TV Shutter priority or time value . Automatic exposure mode where the photographer sets a shutter speed, and the AE firmware automatically sets the appropriate lens aperture. [4]
SC Soft Capture . Capture of light emitting objects as the primary subject with light quality that is not primary but equally soft or washed as the background.[ citation needed ]
SLR Single-lens reflex camera . A camera where the same lens is used to view the scene and to focus its image onto a film emulsion or solid-state photosensor. Usually combined with the facility to fit one of a range of lenses, and often more versatile than viewfinder/rangefinder cameras. [11]
SOOC Straight out of camera . Images as shot out of camera; implied is no post processing, slang
STU Shoot through umbrella . White translucent photographic umbrella; a flash is shot inside the umbrella and the light is diffused onto the intended target; provides a soft, large light source.
Sv Sensitivity value . Sensitivity priority automatic exposure mode, where the photographer sets the ISO sensitivity and the AE firmware sets the aperture or shutter speed.
TC Teleconverter . A lens accessory that fits between the lens and camera body and extends the focal length of the lens, often by 1.4x or 2x, at the cost of reduced light, decreased image quality, and slower autofocus.
TCA Transverse (lateral) chromatic aberration or lateral colour. Colour fringes that worsen the further the image point is from the optical axis. [7] [12]
TIFF Tag Image File Format . A high fidelity computer file format for handling digital images that does not sacrifice colour and form detail in the way that 'lossy' compression formats such as GIF, JPEG and PNG do. [8]
TLR Twin-lens reflex . A camera with two lenses, one for taking pictures and one for viewing the scene. The two lenses are typically linked to ensure that they remain focused at the same distance.
TTL Through the lens . Through the lens metering measures the luminance after it has passed through the camera lens, thus providing readings or settings that allow for aperture and focus changes, filters, etc. [11]
UV Ultraviolet . The electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than about 400 nm and not visible to the human eye. [19]
WB White balance .

Initialisms that are used mainly by specific brands

Abbreviations use mainly by specific camera brands
AbbrBrandDescription
ANikonAutomatic flash. The flash unit automatically meters the scene
AANikonAutomatic aperture flash. The flash unit automatically meters the scene, but takes into account the camera's aperture and ISO values
ADIKonica MinoltaAdvanced distance integration. A technology to take distance information into account in combination with TTL flash metering
Minolta
Sony
ASKonica MinoltaAntiShake. See IS in general usage.
Minolta
BLNikonBalanced fill flash.
BBARTamronBroad-band anti-reflection. Anti-reflection multi-coating of lenses to reduce transmission losses.
DCNikonDefocus control. Lens with bokeh (defocus) control.
Konica MinoltaDigitally corrected. A lens designation to indicate lenses which feature improved lens-coating but cover the APS-C image circle only.
Sigma
Sony
DNG— Digital Negative , an open raw image format promoted by Adobe and used by some camera manufacturers (f.e. Leica, Samsung, Ricoh and Pentax) and also camera-phone manufacturers (among them Nokia and Microsoft). Developed from the TIFF/EP digital image file format.
DXNikonDX. A designation for APS-C sized image sensors.
EMDCanonElectromagnetic diaphragm. A more accurate and faster method of actuating a lens diaphragm.
EOSCanonElectro-Optical System. See Canon EOS.
FXNikonFX. A designation for full-frame sized image sensors. See FF for general usage.
GMinoltaGold. A lens designation suffix applied to top grade Minolta AF and Sony Alpha lenses.
Sony
HSMSigma Hypersonic motor . A lens autofocus motor.
ISCanon Image stabilizer . See general usage.
LCanonLuxury. A lens designation suffix applied to top grade Canon lenses, usually incorporating aspheric and low dispersion elements.
OISPanasonicOptical image stabilization. See IS in general usage.
OSSigmaOptical stabilizer. See IS in general usage.
OSSSonyOptical SteadyShot. See IS in general usage.
PZDTamronPiezo drive. Autofocus mechanism that employs a piezo-electric motor.
RPTNikonRepeat flash
SAMSonySmooth autofocus motor. Autofocus mechanism that employs a piezo-electric motor or micro-motor.
SDMPentax Silent drive motor . An autofocus mechanism.
SLTSony Single-lens translucent . A variation of DSLR, but with fixed semi-transparent mirror.
SMCPentaxSuper multi coated. Anti-reflection coating of lenses to reduce transmission losses.
SRPentaxShake reduction. See IS in general usage.
SSSonySteadyShot. See IS in general usage.
SSISonySteadyShot INSIDE. See IS in general usage.
SSSSonySuper SteadyShot. See IS in general usage.
SSMKonica Minolta Supersonic-wave motor . An autofocus mechanism in lenses
Minolta
Sony
STFMinoltaSmooth trans focus. A special purpose lens for pleasant Bokeh utilizing an apodization filter, or an autobracketing function to achieve the same effect
Sony
SWMNikon Silent wave motor . A lens autofocus mechanism
T*Carl ZeissT*Transparenz. Anti-reflection coating of lenses to reduce transmission losses.
Sony
USDTamron Ultrasonic silent drive . A lens autofocus mechanism
UMCSamyangUltra multi coated. A lens ultra-multi-coating to reduce flare further
USMCanon Ultrasonic motor . A lens autofocus motor
VRNikonVibration reduction. see IS in general usage
WRPentaxWeather-resistant. Cameras and lenses with water resistant seals.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-lens reflex camera</span> Camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system

A single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the viewed image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on most SLRs, the mirror flips out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor and the image to be captured.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Camera</span> Optical device for recording images

A camera is an instrument used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally via an electronic image sensor, or chemically via a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. As a pivotal technology in the fields of photography and videography, cameras have played a significant role in the progression of visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. The invention of the camera dates back to the 19th century and has since evolved with advancements in technology, leading to a vast array of types and models in the 21st century.

The following list comprises significant milestones in the development of photography technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rangefinder camera</span> Camera fitted with a rangefinder

A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder, typically a split-image rangefinder: a range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in sharp focus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exposure (photography)</span> Amount of light captured by a camera

In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area reaching a frame of photographic film or the surface of an electronic image sensor. It is determined by shutter speed, lens F-number, and scene luminance. Exposure is measured in units of lux-seconds, and can be computed from exposure value (EV) and scene luminance in a specified region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flash synchronization</span> Synchronizing the firing of a photographic flash

In photography, flash synchronization or flash sync is the synchronizing the firing of a photographic flash with the opening of the shutter admitting light to photographic film or electronic image sensor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Focal-plane shutter</span> Mechanism that controls the exposure time in cameras

In camera design, a focal-plane shutter (FPS) is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fisheye lens</span> Wide-angle photographic lens with strong barrel distortion

A fisheye lens is an ultra wide-angle lens that produces strong visual distortion intended to create a wide panoramic or hemispherical image. Fisheye lenses achieve extremely wide angles of view, well beyond any rectilinear lens. Instead of producing images with straight lines of perspective, fisheye lenses use a special mapping, which gives images a characteristic convex non-rectilinear appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nikon FM3A</span> Camera model by Nikon

The Nikon FM3ᴀ is an interchangeable-lens, focal-plane shutter, 35 mm film, single-lens reflex (SLR) camera. It was manufactured by Nikon Corporation in Japan, on small-volume assembly lines, from 2001 to 2006. The camera was available in two colours: all black and satin chrome. The introductory US list price for the chrome body only was $820.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Full-frame DSLR</span> Image sensor format

A full-frame DSLR is a digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) with a 35 mm image sensor format. Historically, 35 mm was one of the standard film formats, alongside larger ones, such as medium format and large format. The full-frame DSLR is in contrast to full-frame mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras, and DSLR and mirrorless cameras with smaller sensors, much smaller than a full 35 mm frame. Many digital cameras, both compact and SLR models, use a smaller-than-35 mm frame as it is easier and cheaper to manufacture imaging sensors at a smaller size. Historically, the earliest digital SLR models, such as the Nikon NASA F4 or Kodak DCS 100, also used a smaller sensor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the camera</span>

The history of the camera began even before the introduction of photography. Cameras evolved from the camera obscura through many generations of photographic technology – daguerreotypes, calotypes, dry plates, film – to the modern day with digital cameras and camera phones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the single-lens reflex camera</span> Aspect of photography history

The history of the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) begins with the use of a reflex mirror in a camera obscura described in 1676, but it took a long time for the design to succeed for photographic cameras. The first patent was granted in 1861, and the first cameras were produced in 1884, but while elegantly simple in concept, they were very complex in practice. One by one these complexities were overcome as optical and mechanical technology advanced, and in the 1960s the SLR camera became the preferred design for many high-end camera formats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Film grain</span> Optical texture of processed photographic film

Film grain or film granularity is the random optical texture of processed photographic film due to the presence of small particles of a metallic silver, or dye clouds, developed from silver halide that have received enough photons. While film grain is a function of such particles it is not the same thing as such. It is an optical effect, the magnitude of which depends on both the film stock and the definition at which it is observed. It can be objectionably noticeable in an over-enlarged film photograph.

The merits of digital versus film photography were considered by photographers and filmmakers in the early 21st century after consumer digital cameras became widely available. Digital photography and digital cinematography have both advantages and disadvantages relative to still film and motion picture film photography. In the 21st century, photography came to be predominantly digital, but traditional photochemical methods continue to serve many users and applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">VR photography</span> Interactive panoramic photo viewing format

VR photography is the interactive viewing of panoramic photographs, generally encompassing a 360-degree circle or a spherical view. The results is known as VR photograph, 360-degree photo, photo sphere, or spherical photo, as well as interactive panorama or immersive panorama.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras</span>

This article details lensesfor single-lens reflex and digital single-lens reflex cameras. The emphasis is on modern lenses for 35 mm film SLRs and for "full-frame" DSLRs with sensor sizes less than or equal to 35 mm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monochrome photography</span> Photography in which every point in the image has the same hue but different intensity

Monochrome photography, or is photography where each position on an image can record and show a different amount of light (value), but not a different color (hue). The majority of monochrome photographs produced today are black-and-white, either from a gelatin silver process, or as digital photography. Other hues besides grey can be used to create monochrome photography, but brown and sepia tones are the result of older processes like the albumen print, and cyan tones are the product of cyanotype prints.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photographic film</span> Film used by film (analog) cameras

Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, and resolution of the film. Film is typically segmented in frames, that give rise to separate photographs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Image circle</span> Cross-section of the cone of light produced by a lens

The image circle is the cross section of the cone of light transmitted by a lens or series of lenses onto the image plane. When this light strikes a perpendicular target such as photographic film or a digital camera sensor, it forms a circle of light – the image circle. Various sensor aspect ratios may be used which all fit inside the same image circle, 3:2, 4:3, 16:9, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of photographic lens design</span>

The invention of the camera in the early 19th century led to an array of lens designs intended for photography. The problems of photographic lens design, creating a lens for a task that would cover a large, flat image plane, were well known even before the invention of photography due to the development of lenses to work with the focal plane of the camera obscura.

References

  1. ↑ Langford, Michael. Story of Photography. Focal Press, 1998, pp. 224. ISBN   978-0-240-51483-3.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Busch, David D. Digital SLR Cameras and Photography For Dummies. For Dummies, Wiley 2009. ISBN   978-0-470-46606-3.
  3. ↑ Kelby, Scott. The Digital Photography Book. Peachpit Press, 2006, pp. 240. ISBN   978-0-321-47404-9.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Langford, Michael. Advanced Photography. Focal Press, 1998, pp. 302–312. ISBN   0-240-51486-6.
  5. ↑ ASA PH2.5-1960. American Standard Method for Determining Speed of photographic Negative Materials (Monochrome, Continuous Tone). New York: United States of America Standards Institute.
  6. ↑ Sheppard, Rob. Digital Photography 1 2 3. Lark Books, 2005, ISBN   1-57990-676-1.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ray, Sidney F. The photographic lens. Second edition. Focal Press/Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992, ISBN   0-240-51329-0.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Andrews, Philip. Advanced Photoshop Elements 7 for Digital Photographers. Focal Press, 2009, pp. 426–430. ISBN   978-0-240-52158-9.
  9. 1 2 3 Hamber, Anthony & Green, Phil. Digital photography. Pira/British Printing Industries Federation, 1999, ISBN   1-85802-207-X
  10. 1 2 3 4 Farace, Joe and Staver, Barry. Better Available Light Digital Photography. Focal Press, 2008, ISBN   978-0-240-80999-1.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Warren, Bruce. Photography: the concise guide. Delmar Cengage Learning, 2002, ISBN   1-4018-8745-7
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Ray, Sidney F. Scientific photography and applied imaging. Focal Press/Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999, ISBN   0-240-51323-1
  13. ↑ Kerr, Doug. Depth of field and that pesky circle of confusion. http://www.openphotographyforums.com/forums/showthread.php?t=14507
  14. ↑ Kerr, Doug. About dynamic range. http://www.openphotographyforums.com/forums/showthread.php?t=14435
  15. ↑ Kerr, Doug. About Ev. http://www.openphotographyforums.com/forums/showthread.php?t=12984
  16. ↑ Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Color Photography. Focal Press/Elsevier, 2011. ISBN   978-0-240-81335-6.
  17. ↑ Rutenbeck, Jeffrey. Tech Terms. Focal Press, 2006, ISBN   978-0-240-80757-7.
  18. ↑ Wang, Zhou & Bovik, A.C. Modern Image Quality Assessment. Morgan & Claypool, 2006, ISBN   978-1-59829-022-6.
  19. 1 2 Hayball, Laurie W.. Advanced Infrared Photography Handbook. Amherst Media, 2001, ISBN   1-58428-049-2.
  20. 1 2 "Photoshop apps - desktop, mobile, and tablet | Photoshop.com". photoshop.com.
  21. ↑ "Nikon | Imaging Products | Digital SLR Camera Basics | Digital Camera Glossary". Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. Retrieved January 1, 2011.
  22. ↑ Freeman, Michael. The complete guide to night & lowlight digital photography. Lark Books, 2008, ISBN   978-1-60059-206-5.

General references

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