Dynamic range

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Dynamic range (abbreviated DR, DNR, [1] or DYR [2] ) is the ratio between the largest and smallest measurable values of a specific quantity. It is often used in the context of signals, like sound and light. It is measured either as a ratio or as a base-10 (decibel) or base-2 (doublings, bits or stops) logarithmic value of the ratio between the largest and smallest signal values. [3]

Contents

Electronically reproduced audio and video is often processed to fit the original material with a wide dynamic range into a narrower recorded dynamic range for easier storage and reproduction. This process is called dynamic range compression.

Human perception

Power ratios and their equivalent decibels and stops (integer values in bold)
Factor (power)Decibels
(10×log10 power)		Stops
(log2 power)
100
23.011
3.1651.66
46.022
56.992.32
89.033
10103.32
1612.04
2013.04.32
31.6154.98
3215.15
5017.05.64
100206.64
1,000309.97
1,02430.110
10,0004013.3
100,0005016.6
1,000,0006019.9
1,048,57660.220
100,000,0008026.6
1,073,741,82490.330
10,000,000,00010033.2

The human senses of sight and hearing have a relatively high dynamic range. However, a human cannot perform these feats of perception at both extremes of the scale at the same time. The human eye takes time to adjust to different light levels, and its dynamic range in a given scene is actually quite limited due to optical glare. The instantaneous dynamic range of human audio perception is similarly subject to masking so that, for example, a whisper cannot be heard in loud surroundings.

A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100  dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power. [4] [5] The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB, [6] [7] varying with frequency, [8] from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL [8] [9] [10] at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL [11] [12] [13] ). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels. [14]

A human can see objects in starlight [a] or in bright sunlight, even though on a moonless night objects receive one billionth (10−9) of the illumination they would on a bright sunny day; a dynamic range of 90 dB. Change of sensitivity is achieved in part through adjustments of the iris and slow chemical changes, which take some time.

In practice, it is difficult for humans to achieve the full dynamic experience using electronic equipment. For example, a good quality liquid-crystal display (LCD) has a dynamic range limited to around 1000:1, [b] and some of the latest CMOS image sensors now[ when? ] have measured dynamic ranges of about 23,000:1. [15] [c] Paper reflectance can produce a dynamic range of about 100:1. [16] A professional video camera such as the Sony Digital Betacam achieves a dynamic range of greater than 90 dB in audio recording. [17]

Audio

Audio engineers use dynamic range to describe the ratio of the amplitude of the loudest possible undistorted signal to the noise floor, say of a microphone or loudspeaker. [18] Dynamic range is therefore the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the case where the signal is the loudest possible for the system. For example, if the ceiling of a device is 5 V (rms) and the noise floor is 10 μV (rms) then the dynamic range is 500000:1, or 114 dB:

In digital audio theory the dynamic range is limited by quantization error. The maximum achievable dynamic range for a digital audio system with Q-bit uniform quantization is calculated as the ratio of the largest sine-wave rms to rms noise is: [19]

However, the usable dynamic range may be greater, as a properly dithered recording device can record signals well below the noise floor.

The 16-bit compact disc has a theoretical undithered dynamic range of about 96 dB; [20] [d] however, the perceived dynamic range of 16-bit audio can be 120 dB or more with noise-shaped dither, taking advantage of the frequency response of the human ear. [21] [22]

Digital audio with undithered 20-bit quantization is theoretically capable of 120 dB dynamic range, while 24-bit digital audio affords 144 dB dynamic range. [6] Most Digital audio workstations process audio with 32-bit floating-point representation which affords even higher dynamic range and so loss of dynamic range is no longer a concern in terms of digital audio processing. Dynamic range limitations typically result from improper gain staging, recording technique including ambient noise and intentional application of dynamic range compression.

Dynamic range in analog audio is the difference between low-level thermal noise in the electronic circuitry and high-level signal saturation resulting in increased distortion and, if pushed higher, clipping. [23] Multiple noise processes determine the noise floor of a system. Noise can be picked up from microphone self-noise, preamp noise, wiring and interconnection noise, media noise, etc.

Early 78 rpm phonograph discs had a dynamic range of up to 40 dB, [24] soon reduced to 30 dB and worse due to wear from repeated play. Vinyl microgroove phonograph records typically yield 55-65 dB, though the first play of the higher-fidelity outer rings can achieve a dynamic range of 70 dB. [25]

German magnetic tape in 1941 was reported to have had a dynamic range of 60 dB, [26] though modern-day restoration experts of such tapes note 45-50 dB as the observed dynamic range. [27] Ampex tape recorders in the 1950s achieved 60 dB in practical usage, [26] In the 1960s, improvements in tape formulation processes resulted in 7 dB greater range, [28] : 158  and Ray Dolby developed the Dolby A-Type noise reduction system that increased low- and mid-frequency dynamic range on magnetic tape by 10 dB, and high-frequency by 15 dB, using companding (compression and expansion) of four frequency bands. [28] : 169  The peak of professional analog magnetic recording tape technology reached 90 dB dynamic range in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion, or about 80 dB in practical broadband applications. [28] : 158  The Dolby SR noise reduction system gave a 20 dB further increased range resulting in 110 dB in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion. [28] : 172 

Compact Cassette tape performance ranges from 50 to 56 dB depending on tape formulation, with type IV tape tapes giving the greatest dynamic range, and systems such as XDR, dbx and Dolby noise reduction system increasing it further. Specialized bias and record head improvements by Nakamichi and Tandberg combined with Dolby C noise reduction yielded 72 dB dynamic range for the cassette.[ citation needed ]

A dynamic microphone is able to withstand high sound intensity and can have a dynamic range of up to 140 dB. Condenser microphones are also rugged but their dynamic range may be limited by the overloading of their associated electronic circuitry. [29] Practical considerations of acceptable distortion levels in microphones combined with typical practices in a recording studio result in a useful dynamic range of 125 dB. [28] : 75 

In 1981, researchers at Ampex determined that a dynamic range of 118 dB on a dithered digital audio stream was necessary for subjective noise-free playback of music in quiet listening environments. [30]

Since the early 1990s, it has been recommended by several authorities, including the Audio Engineering Society, that measurements of dynamic range be made with an audio signal present, which is then filtered out in the noise floor measurement used in determining dynamic range. [31] This avoids questionable measurements based on the use of blank media, or muting circuits.

The term dynamic range may be confusing in audio production because it has two conflicting definitions, particularly in the understanding of the loudness war phenomenon. [32] [33] Dynamic range may refer to micro-dynamics, [34] [35] [36] related to crest factor, [37] [38] whereas the European Broadcasting Union, in EBU3342 Loudness Range, defines dynamic range as the difference between the quietest and loudest volume, a matter of macro-dynamics. [32] [33] [39] [40] [41] [42]

Electronics

In electronics dynamic range is used in the following contexts:

In audio and electronics applications, the ratio involved is often large enough that it is converted to a logarithm and specified in decibels. [43]

Metrology

In metrology, such as when performed in support of science, engineering or manufacturing objectives, dynamic range refers to the range of values that can be measured by a sensor or metrology instrument. Often this dynamic range of measurement is limited at one end of the range by saturation of a sensing signal sensor or by physical limits that exist on the motion or other response capability of a mechanical indicator. The other end of the dynamic range of measurement is often limited by one or more sources of random noise or uncertainty in signal levels that may be described as defining the sensitivity of the sensor or metrology device. When digital sensors or sensor signal converters are a component of the sensor or metrology device, the dynamic range of measurement will be also related to the number of binary digits (bits) used in a digital numeric representation in which the measured value is linearly related to the digital number. [43] For example, a 12-bit digital sensor or converter can provide a dynamic range in which the ratio of the maximum measured value to the minimum measured value is up to 212 = 4096.

Metrology systems and devices may use several basic methods to increase their basic dynamic range. These methods include averaging and other forms of filtering, correction of receivers characteristics, [43] repetition of measurements, nonlinear transformations to avoid saturation, etc. In more advance forms of metrology, such as multiwavelength digital holography, interferometry measurements made at different scales (different wavelengths) can be combined to retain the same low-end resolution while extending the upper end of the dynamic range of measurement by orders of magnitude.

Music

In music, dynamic range describes the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. [49] In modern recording, this range is often limited through dynamic range compression, which allows for louder volume, but can make the recording sound less exciting or live. [50]

The dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall does not exceed 80 dB, and human speech is normally perceived over a range of about 40 dB. [28] : 4 

Photography

Central Park New York May 2015 007 original.jpg
Central Park New York May 2015 007.jpg
A scene demanding high dynamic range, taken with the Nikon D7000 digital camera, capable of 13.9 stops of dynamic range per DxOMark. [51] The unedited version of the digital photo is to the left, while the shadows have been pushed heavily in Photoshop to produce the final image on the right. The better the dynamic range of the camera, the more an exposure can be pushed without significantly increasing noise.

Photographers use dynamic range to describe the luminance range of a scene being photographed, or the limits of luminance range that a given digital camera or film can capture, [52] or the opacity range of developed film images, or the reflectance range of images on photographic papers.

The dynamic range of digital photography is comparable to the capabilities of photographic film [53] and both are comparable to the capabilities of the human eye. [54]

There are photographic techniques that support even higher dynamic range.

Consumer-grade image file formats sometimes restrict dynamic range. [57] The most severe dynamic-range limitation in photography may not involve encoding, but rather reproduction to, say, a paper print or computer screen. In that case, not only local tone mapping but also dynamic range adjustment can be effective in revealing detail throughout light and dark areas: The principle is the same as that of dodging and burning (using different lengths of exposures in different areas when making a photographic print) in the chemical darkroom. The principle is also similar to gain riding or automatic level control in audio work, which serves to keep a signal audible in a noisy listening environment and to avoid peak levels that overload the reproducing equipment, or which are unnaturally or uncomfortably loud.

If a camera sensor is incapable of recording the full dynamic range of a scene, high-dynamic-range (HDR) techniques may be used in postprocessing, which generally involve combining multiple exposures using software.

Dynamic ranges of common devices
DeviceStops Contrast ratio
Glossy photograph paper7 (7–7+2⁄3) [58] 128:1
LCD9.5 (9-11) [59] 700:1 (500:1 –2000:1)
Typical cellphone camera~10 [60] [ failed verification ]varies
Negative film (Kodak VISION3)13 [61] 8000:1
Human eye10–14 [54] 1000:1 –16000:1
OLED or quantum dot 13.2-20.9 [62] 9500:1 –2000000:1
High-end DSLR camera (Nikon D850)14.8 [63] 28500:1
Digital cinema camera (Red Weapon 8k)> 16.5 [64] 92000:1

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Colour differentiation is reduced at low light levels.
  2. ↑ Commercially the dynamic range is often called the contrast ratio meaning the full-on to full-off luminance ratio.
  3. ↑ Reported as 14.5 stops, or doublings, equivalent to binary digits.
  4. ↑ The 96 dB figure is for a triangle or sine wave. Dynamic range is 98 dB for sine wave [19] (see Quantization noise model).

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High fidelity</span> High-quality reproduction of sound

High fidelity is the high-quality reproduction of sound. It is popular with audiophiles and home audio enthusiasts. Ideally, high-fidelity equipment has inaudible noise and distortion, and a flat frequency response within the human hearing range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Analog-to-digital converter</span> System that converts an analog signal into a digital signal

In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter is a system that converts an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic device that converts an analog input voltage or current to a digital number representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weighting filter</span>

A weighting filter is used to emphasize or suppress some aspects of a phenomenon compared to others, for measurement or other purposes.

μ-law algorithm Audio companding algorithm

The μ-law algorithm is a companding algorithm, primarily used in 8-bit PCM digital telecommunications systems in North America and Japan. It is one of the two companding algorithms in the G.711 standard from ITU-T, the other being the similar A-law. A-law is used in regions where digital telecommunication signals are carried on E-1 circuits, e.g. Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Signal-to-noise ratio</span> Ratio of the desired signal to the background noise

Signal-to-noise ratio is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power, often expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1 indicates more signal than noise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microphone</span> Device that converts sound into an electrical signal

A microphone, colloquially called a mic, or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, hearing aids, public address systems for concert halls and public events, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, sound recording, two-way radios, megaphones, and radio and television broadcasting. They are also used in computers and other electronic devices, such as mobile phones, for recording sounds, speech recognition, VoIP, and other purposes, such as ultrasonic sensors or knock sensors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolby noise-reduction system</span> A line of noise reduction systems for reel-to-reel, compact cassette, and videocassette recorders

A Dolby noise-reduction system, or Dolby NR, is one of a series of noise reduction systems developed by Dolby Laboratories for use in analog audio tape recording. The first was Dolby A, a professional broadband noise reduction system for recording studios that was first demonstrated in 1965, but the best-known is Dolby B, a sliding band system for the consumer market, which helped make high fidelity practical on cassette tapes, which used a relatively noisy tape size and speed. It is common on high-fidelity stereo tape players and recorders to the present day, although Dolby has as of 2016 ceased licensing the technology for new cassette decks. Of the noise reduction systems, Dolby A and Dolby SR were developed for professional use. Dolby B, C, and S were designed for the consumer market. Aside from Dolby HX, all the Dolby variants work by companding: compressing the dynamic range of the sound during recording, and expanding it during playback.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Digital-to-analog converter</span> Device that converts a digital signal into an analog signal

In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter is a system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse function.

Sound can be recorded and stored and played using either digital or analog techniques. Both techniques introduce errors and distortions in the sound, and these methods can be systematically compared. Musicians and listeners have argued over the superiority of digital versus analog sound recordings. Arguments for analog systems include the absence of fundamental error mechanisms which are present in digital audio systems, including aliasing and associated anti-aliasing filter implementation, jitter and quantization noise. Advocates of digital point to the high levels of performance possible with digital audio, including excellent linearity in the audible band and low levels of noise and distortion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mastering (audio)</span> Form of audio post-production

Mastering, a form of audio post production, is the process of preparing and transferring recorded audio from a source containing the final mix to a data storage device, the source from which all copies will be produced. In recent years, digital masters have become usual, although analog masters—such as audio tapes—are still being used by the manufacturing industry, particularly by a few engineers who specialize in analog mastering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dynamic range compression</span> Audio signal processing operation

Dynamic range compression (DRC) or simply compression is an audio signal processing operation that reduces the volume of loud sounds or amplifies quiet sounds, thus reducing or compressing an audio signal's dynamic range. Compression is commonly used in sound recording and reproduction, broadcasting, live sound reinforcement and some instrument amplifiers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audio system measurements</span> Means of quantifying system performance

Audio system measurements are used to quantify audio system performance. These measurements are made for several purposes. Designers take measurements to specify the performance of a piece of equipment. Maintenance engineers make them to ensure equipment is still working to specification, or to ensure that the cumulative defects of an audio path are within limits considered acceptable. Audio system measurements often accommodate psychoacoustic principles to measure the system in a way that relates to human hearing.

dbx (noise reduction) Family of noise reduction systems

dbx is a family of noise reduction systems developed by the company of the same name. The most common implementations are dbx Type I and dbx Type II for analog tape recording and, less commonly, vinyl LPs. A separate implementation, known as dbx-TV, is part of the MTS system used to provide stereo sound to North American and certain other TV systems. The company, dbx, Inc., was also involved with Dynamic Noise Reduction (DNR) systems.

Noise shaping is a technique typically used in digital audio, image, and video processing, usually in combination with dithering, as part of the process of quantization or bit-depth reduction of a signal. Its purpose is to increase the apparent signal-to-noise ratio of the resultant signal. It does this by altering the spectral shape of the error that is introduced by dithering and quantization; such that the noise power is at a lower level in frequency bands at which noise is considered to be less desirable and at a correspondingly higher level in bands where it is considered to be more desirable. A popular noise shaping algorithm used in image processing is known as ‘Floyd Steinberg dithering’; and many noise shaping algorithms used in audio processing are based on an ‘Absolute threshold of hearing’ model.

In signal processing, oversampling is the process of sampling a signal at a sampling frequency significantly higher than the Nyquist rate. Theoretically, a bandwidth-limited signal can be perfectly reconstructed if sampled at the Nyquist rate or above it. The Nyquist rate is defined as twice the bandwidth of the signal. Oversampling is capable of improving resolution and signal-to-noise ratio, and can be helpful in avoiding aliasing and phase distortion by relaxing anti-aliasing filter performance requirements.

Audio normalization is the application of a constant amount of gain to an audio recording to bring the amplitude to a target level. Because the same amount of gain is applied across the entire recording, the signal-to-noise ratio and relative dynamics are unchanged. Normalization is one of the functions commonly provided by a digital audio workstation.

dBFS Unit of measurement for amplitude levels in digital systems

Decibels relative to full scale is a unit of measurement for amplitude levels in digital systems, such as pulse-code modulation (PCM), which have a defined maximum peak level. The unit is similar to the units dBov and decibels relative to overload (dBO).

Audio noise measurement is a process carried out to assess the quality of audio equipment, such as the kind used in recording studios, broadcast engineering, and in-home high fidelity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audio bit depth</span> Number of bits of information recorded for each digital audio sample

In digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample. Examples of bit depth include Compact Disc Digital Audio, which uses 16 bits per sample, and DVD-Audio and Blu-ray Disc, which can support up to 24 bits per sample.

Psychoacoustics is the branch of psychophysics involving the scientific study of the perception of sound by the human auditory system. It is the branch of science studying the psychological responses associated with sound including noise, speech, and music. Psychoacoustics is an interdisciplinary field including psychology, acoustics, electronic engineering, physics, biology, physiology, and computer science.

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  8. 1 2 Montgomery, Christopher. "24/192 Music Downloads ...and why they make no sense". xiph.org. Archived from the original on 2020-04-26. Retrieved 2022-05-10. The very quietest perceptible sound is about -8dbSPL
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