Dynamic range compression

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A rack of audio compressors in a recording studio. From top to bottom: Retro Instruments/Gates STA level; Spectra Sonic 610; Dbx 162; Dbx 165; Empirical Labs Distressor; Smart Research C2; Chandler Limited TG1; Daking FET (91579); and Altec 436c. Comp. rack (Supernatural).jpg
A rack of audio compressors in a recording studio. From top to bottom: Retro Instruments/Gates STA level; Spectra Sonic 610; Dbx 162; Dbx 165; Empirical Labs Distressor; Smart Research C2; Chandler Limited TG1; Daking FET (91579); and Altec 436c.

Dynamic range compression (DRC) or simply compression is an audio signal processing operation that reduces the volume of loud sounds or amplifies quiet sounds, thus reducing or compressing an audio signal's dynamic range. Compression is commonly used in sound recording and reproduction, broadcasting, [1] live sound reinforcement and some instrument amplifiers.

Contents

A dedicated electronic hardware unit or audio software that applies compression is called a compressor. In the 2000s, compressors became available as software plugins that run in digital audio workstation software. In recorded and live music, compression parameters may be adjusted to change the way they affect sounds. Compression and limiting are identical in process but different in degree and perceived effect. A limiter is a compressor with a high ratio and, generally, a short attack time.

Compression is used to improve performance and clarity in public address systems, as an effect and to improve consistency in mixing and mastering. It is used on voice to reduce sibilance and in broadcasting and advertising to make an audio program stand out. It is an integral technology in some noise reduction systems.

Types

Two methods of dynamic range compression
Audio-level-compresion-diagram-01.svg
Downward compression
Upward compression.svg
Upward compression

There are two types of compression: downward and upward. Both types of compression reduce the dynamic range of an audio signal. [2]

Downward compression reduces the volume of loud sounds above a certain threshold. The quiet sounds below the threshold remain unaffected. This is the most common type of compressor. A limiter can be thought of as an extreme form of downward compression as it compresses the sounds over the threshold especially hard.

Upward compression increases the volume of quiet sounds below a certain threshold. The louder sounds above the threshold remain unaffected.

Some compressors also have the ability to do the opposite of compression, namely expansion. Expansion increases the dynamic range of the audio signal. [3] Like compression, expansion comes in two types, downward and upward.

Downward expansion makes the quiet sounds below the threshold even quieter. A noise gate can be thought of as an extreme form of downward expansion as the noise gate make the quiet sounds (for instance: noise) quieter or even silent, depending on the floor setting. [2]

Upward expansion makes the louder sounds above the threshold even louder.

Design

A feed-forward compressor design (left) and feedback design (right) Compressors Feed Design.gif
A feed-forward compressor design (left) and feedback design (right)

The signal entering a compressor is split; one copy is sent to a variable-gain amplifier and the other to a side-chain where the signal level is measured and a circuit controlled by the measured signal level applies the required gain to the amplifier. This design, known as a feed-forward type, is used today in most compressors. Earlier designs were based on a feedback layout where the signal level was measured after the amplifier. [4]

There are a number of technologies used for variable-gain amplification, each having different advantages and disadvantages. Vacuum tubes are used in a configuration called variable-mu where the grid-to-cathode voltage changes to alter the gain. [5] Optical compressors use a photoresistor stimulated by a small lamp (incandescent, LED, or electroluminescent panel) [6] to create changes in signal gain. Other technologies used include field effect transistors and a diode bridge. [7]

When working with digital audio, digital signal processing (DSP) techniques are commonly used to implement compression as audio plug-ins, in mixing consoles, and in digital audio workstations. Often the algorithms are used to emulate the above analog technologies.[ citation needed ]

Controls and features

Different compression ratios for a signal level above the threshold Compression ratio.svg
Different compression ratios for a signal level above the threshold

A number of user-adjustable control parameters and features are used to adjust dynamic range compression signal processing algorithms and components.

Threshold

A compressor reduces the level of an audio signal if its amplitude exceeds a certain threshold. Threshold is commonly set in decibels (dBFS for digital compressors and dBu for hardware compressors), [8] where a lower threshold (e.g. −60 dB) means a larger portion of the signal is treated. When the signal level is below the threshold, no processing is performed and the input signal is passed, unmodified, to the output. Thus a higher threshold of, e.g., −5 dB, results in less processing, less compression.

Threshold timing behavior is subject to attack and release settings (see below). When the signal level goes above threshold, compressor operation is delayed by the attack setting. For an amount of time determined by the release after the input signal has fallen below the threshold, the compressor continues to apply dynamic range compression.

Ratio

The amount of gain reduction is determined by ratio: a ratio of 4:1 means that if input level is 4  dB over the threshold, the output signal level is reduced to 1 dB over the threshold. The gain and output level has been reduced by 3 dB. Another way of stating this is that any input signal level over the threshold will, in this case, be output at a level which is only 25% (i.e. 1 over 4) as much over the threshold as its input level was.

The highest ratio of :1 is often known as limiting, and effectively denotes that any signal above the threshold is brought down to the threshold level once the attack time has expired.

Attack and release

The attack and release phases in a compressor Audio Compression Attack and Release-2.svg
The attack and release phases in a compressor

A compressor may provide a degree of control over how quickly it acts. The attack is the period when the compressor is decreasing gain in response to the increased level at the input to reach the gain determined by the ratio. The release is the period when the compressor is increasing gain in response to reduced level at the input to reach the output gain determined by the ratio, or, to unity, once the input level has fallen below the threshold. Because the loudness pattern of the source material is modified by the time-varying operation of compressor, it may change the character of the signal in subtle to quite noticeable ways depending on the attack and release settings used.

The length of each period is determined by the rate of change and the required change in gain. For more intuitive operation, a compressor's attack and release controls are labeled as a unit of time (often milliseconds). This is the amount of time it takes for the gain to change a set amount of dB or a set percentage towards the target gain. There is no industry standard for the exact meaning of these time parameters. [9]

In many compressors, the attack and release times are adjustable by the user. Some compressors, however, have the attack and release times determined by the circuit design and cannot be adjusted. Sometimes the attack and release times are automatic or program dependent, meaning that the behavior may change depending on the input signal.

Soft and hard knees

Hard Knee and Soft Knee compression Compression knee.svg
Hard Knee and Soft Knee compression

Another control a compressor might offer is hard knee or soft knee selection. This controls whether the bend in the response curve between below threshold and above threshold is abrupt (hard) or gradual (soft). A soft knee slowly increases the compression ratio as the level increases and eventually reaches the compression ratio set by the user. A soft knee reduces the potentially audible transition from uncompressed to compressed, and is especially applicable for higher ratio settings where the changeover at the threshold would be more noticeable. [10]

Peak vs RMS sensing

A peak-sensing compressor responds to the peak level of the input signal. While providing tighter peak level control, peak level sensing does not necessarily relate to human perception of loudness. Some compressors apply a power measurement function (commonly root mean square or RMS) on the input signal before comparing its level to the threshold. This produces a more relaxed compression that more closely relates to human perception of loudness.

Stereo linking

A compressor in stereo linking mode applies the same amount of gain reduction to both the left and right channels. This is done to prevent image shifting that can occur if each channel is compressed individually. [11]

Make-up gain

Because a downward compressor only reduces the level of the signal, the ability to add a fixed amount of make-up gain at the output is usually provided so that an optimum output level is produced.

Look-ahead

The look-ahead function is designed to overcome the problem of being forced to compromise between slow attack rates that produce smooth-sounding gain changes, and fast attack rates capable of catching transients. Look-ahead is implemented by splitting the input signal and delaying one side (the audio signal) by the look-ahead time. The non-delayed side (the gain control signal) is used to drive the compression of the delayed signal, which then appears at the output. This way a smooth-sounding slower attack rate can be used to catch transients. The cost of this solution is added audio latency through the processor.

Uses

Public spaces

Compression is often applied in audio systems for restaurants, retail, and similar public environments that play background music at a relatively low volume and need it compressed, not just to keep the volume fairly constant, but also to make quiet parts of the music audible over ambient noise.

Compression can increase average output gain of a power amplifier by 50 to 100% with a reduced dynamic range.[ citation needed ] For paging and evacuation systems, this adds clarity under noisy circumstances and saves on the number of amplifiers required.

Music production

An inexpensive guitar compressor Behringer CD400 Compressor 8198.jpg
An inexpensive guitar compressor

Compression is often used in music production to make instruments more consistent in dynamic range, so that they "sit" more nicely in the mix with the other instruments (neither disappear during short periods of time, nor overpower the other instruments during short periods). [12] Vocal performances in rock music or pop music are compressed for the same reason.

Compression can also be used on instrument sounds to create effects not primarily focused on stabilizing the volume. For instance, drum and cymbal sounds tend to decay quickly, but a compressor can make the sound appear to have a more sustained tail. Guitar sounds are often compressed to produce a fuller, more sustained sound.

Most devices capable of compressing audio dynamics can also be used to reduce the volume of one audio source when another audio source reaches a certain level; this is called side-chaining. [13] In electronic dance music, side-chaining is often used on basslines, controlled by the kick drum or a similar percussive trigger, to prevent the two from conflicting, and provide a pulsating, rhythmic dynamic to the sound.

Voice

A compressor can be used to reduce sibilance ('ess' sounds) in vocals (de-essing) by feeding the compressor's side-chain an equalized version of the input signal, so that specific, sibilance-related frequencies (typically 4000 to 8000 hz) activate the compressor more. [14]

Compression is used in voice communications in amateur radio that employ single-sideband (SSB) modulation to make a particular station's signal more readable to a distant station, or to make one's station's transmitted signal stand out against others. This is applicable especially in DXing. An SSB signal's strength depends on the level of modulation. A compressor increases the average level of the modulation signal thus increasing the transmitted signal strength. Most modern amateur radio SSB transceivers have speech compressors built-in. Compression is also used in land mobile radio, especially in transmitted audio of professional walkie-talkies and remote control dispatch consoles. [15]

Broadcasting

Compression is used extensively in broadcasting to boost the perceived volume of sound while reducing the dynamic range of source audio. To avoid overmodulation, broadcasters in most countries have legal limits on instantaneous peak volume they may broadcast. Normally these limits are met by permanently inserted compression hardware in the on-air chain.

Broadcasters use compressors in order that their station sounds louder than comparable stations. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed station jump out at the listener at a given volume setting. [12] This is not limited to inter-channel differences; they also exist between programme material within the same channel. Loudness differences are a frequent source of audience complaints, especially TV commercials and promos that seem too loud.

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) has been addressing this issue in the EBU PLOUD group, which consists of over 240 audio professionals, many from broadcasters and equipment manufacturers. In 2010, the EBU published EBU R 128 which introduces a new way of metering and normalizing audio. The Recommendation uses ITU-R BS.1770 loudness metering. As of 2016, several European TV stations have announced their support for the new norm [16] [17] and over 20 manufacturers have announced products supporting the new EBU Mode loudness meters. [18] [ failed verification ]

To help audio engineers understand what loudness range their material consists of (e.g. to check if some compression may be needed to fit it into the channel of a specific delivery platform), the EBU also introduced the Loudness Range (LRA) descriptor. [19]

Marketing

Most television commercials are heavily compressed to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying within permissible limits. This causes a problem that TV viewers often notice: when a station switches from minimally compressed program material to a heavily compressed commercial, the volume sometimes seems to increase dramatically. Peak loudness might be the same—meeting the letter of the law—but high compression puts much more of the audio in the commercial at close to the maximum allowable, making the commercial seem much louder. [20]

Over-usage

The trend of increasing loudness as shown by waveform images of the song "Something" by The Beatles mastered on CD four times since 1983 Cd loudness trend-something.gif
The trend of increasing loudness as shown by waveform images of the song "Something" by The Beatles mastered on CD four times since 1983

Record companies, mixing engineers and mastering engineers have been gradually increasing the overall loudness of commercial albums. This is achieved by using higher degrees of compression and limiting during mixing and mastering; compression algorithms have been engineered specifically to accomplish the task of maximizing audio level in the digital stream. Hard limiting or clipping can result, affecting the tone and timbre of the music. The effort to increase loudness has been referred to as the loudness war.

Other uses

Noise reduction systems use a compressor to reduce the dynamic range of a signal for transmission or recording, expanding it afterward, a process called companding. This reduces the effects of a channel or recording medium with limited dynamic range.

Instrument amplifiers often include compression circuitry to prevent sudden high-wattage peaks that could damage the speakers. Electric bass players often use compression effects, either effects units available in pedal, rackmount units, or built-in devices in bass amps, to even out the sound levels of their basslines.

Gain pumping, where a regular amplitude peak (such as a kick drum) causes the rest of the mix to change in volume due to the compressor, is generally avoided in music production. However, many dance and hip-hop musicians purposefully use this phenomenon, causing the mix to alter in volume rhythmically in time with the beat. [21]

Hearing aids use a compressor to bring the audio volume into the listener's hearing range. To help the patient perceive the direction sound comes from, some hearing aids use binaural compression. [22]

Compressors are also used for hearing protection in some electronic active hearing protection earmuffs and earplugs, to let sounds at ordinary volumes be heard normally while attenuating louder sounds, possibly also amplifying softer sounds. This allows, for example, shooters wearing hearing protection at a shooting range to converse normally, while sharply attenuating the much louder sounds of the gunshots, [23] and similarly for musicians to hear quiet music but be protected from loud noises such as drums or cymbal crashes.[ citation needed ]

In applications of machine learning where an algorithm is training on audio samples, dynamic range compression is a way to augment samples for a larger data set. [24]

Limiting

Limiting and clipping compared. Note that clipping introduces a large amount of distortion whereas limiting only introduces a small amount while keeping the signal within the threshold. Clipping compared to limiting.svg
Limiting and clipping compared. Note that clipping introduces a large amount of distortion whereas limiting only introduces a small amount while keeping the signal within the threshold.

Compression and limiting are identical in process but different in degree and perceived effect. A limiter is a compressor with a high ratio and, generally, a fast attack time. Compression with ratio of 10:1 or more is generally considered limiting. [25]

Brick wall limiting has a very high ratio and a very fast attack time. Ideally, this ensures that an audio signal never exceeds the amplitude of the threshold. Ratios of 20:1 all the way up to ∞:1 are considered brick wall. [25] The sonic results of more than momentary and infrequent brick-wall limiting are harsh and unpleasant, thus it is more common as a safety device in live sound and broadcast applications.

Some bass amps and PA system amplifiers include limiters to prevent sudden volume peaks from causing distortion or damaging the speakers.

Side-chaining

The sidechain of a feed-forward compressor Compressor Sidechain.svg
The sidechain of a feed-forward compressor

A compressor with a side-chain input controls gain from main input to output based on the level of the signal at the side-chain input. [26] An early innovator of side-chain compression in an effects unit was the Eventide Omnipressor from 1974. [27] With side-chaining, the compressor behaves in the conventional manner when both main and side-chain inputs are supplied with the same signal. The side-chain input is used by disc jockeys for ducking – lowering the music volume automatically when speaking. The DJ's microphone signal is routed to the side-chain input so that whenever the DJ speaks the compressor reduces the volume of the music. A sidechain with equalization controls can be used to reduce the volume of signals that have a strong spectral content within a certain frequency range: it can act as a de-esser, reducing the level of vocal sibilance in the range of 6–9 kHz. [28] Another use of the side-chain in music production serves to maintain a loud bass track without the bass drum causing undue peaks that result in loss of overall headroom. [26]

Parallel compression

Inserting the compressor in a parallel signal path is known as parallel compression. It is a form of upward compression that facilitates dynamic control without significant audible side effects so long as the ratio is relatively low and the compressor's sound is relatively neutral. On the other hand, a high compression ratio with significant audible artifacts can be chosen in one of the two parallel signal paths. This is used by some concert mixers and recording engineers as an artistic effect called New York compression or Motown compression. Combining a linear signal with a compressor and then reducing the output gain of the compression chain results in low-level detail enhancement without any peak reduction; The compressor significantly adds to the combined gain at low levels only.

Multiband compression

Multiband compressors can act differently on different frequency bands. The advantage of multiband compression over full-bandwidth compression is that problems related to a specific frequency range can be fixed without unnecessary compression in the other, unrelated frequencies. The downside is that frequency-specific compression is more complex and requires more processing capacity than full-bandwidth compression and can introduce phase issues. [29]

Multiband compressors work by first splitting the signal through some number of band-pass filters, crossover filters or filter banks. Each split signal then passes through its own compressor and is independently adjustable for threshold, ratio, attack, and release. The signals are then recombined and an additional limiting circuit may be employed to ensure that the combined signals do not create unwanted peak levels.

In music production, multiband compressors are primarily an audio mastering tool, but their inclusion in digital audio workstation plug-in sets is increasing their use among mix engineers. The TC Electronic Finalizer included a three band compressor and was a popular audio mastering tool around year 2000. [30]

On-air signal chains of radio stations commonly use multiband compressors to increase loudness while avoiding overmodulation. Having a louder sound is often considered an advantage in commercial broadcasting.

Serial compression

Serial compression is a technique used in sound recording and mixing. Serial compression is achieved by using two fairly different compressors in a signal chain. One compressor generally stabilizes the dynamic range while the other aggressively compresses stronger peaks. This is the normal internal signal routing in common combination devices marketed as compressor-limiters, where an RMS compressor (for general gain control) is followed by a fast peak-sensing limiter (for overload protection). Done properly, even heavy serial compression can sound natural in a way not possible with a single compressor. It is most often used to even out erratic vocals and guitars.

Software audio players

Some software audio players support plugins that implement compression. These can increase loudness of audio tracks, or level out the volume of highly-variable music (such as classical music, or a playlist that spans multiple music types). This improves the listenability of audio played through poor-quality speakers, or when played in noisy environments (such as in a car or during a party).

Objective influence on the signal

In an article published in January 2014 by the Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Emmanuel Deruty and Damien Tardieu performed a systematic study describing the influence of compressors and brickwall limiters on the musical audio signal. The experiment involved four software limiters: Waves L2, Sonnox Oxford Limiter, Thomas Mundt's Loudmax, Blue Cat's Protector, as well as four software compressors: Waves H-Comp, Sonnox Oxford Dynamics, Sonalksis SV-3157, and URS 1970. The study provides objective data on what limiters and compressors do to the audio signal. [31]

Five signal descriptors were considered: RMS power, EBU R 128 integrated loudness, [18] crest factor, R 128 LRA, [19] and density of clipped samples. RMS power accounts for the signal's physical level, R 128 loudness for the perceived level. [18] The crest factor, which is the difference between the signal's peak and its average power, [31] is on occasions considered as a basis for the measure of micro-dynamics, for instance in the TT Dynamic Range Meter plug-in. [32] Finally, R 128 LRA has been repeatedly considered as a measure of macro-dynamics or dynamics in the musical sense. [31] [33] [34] [35] [36]

Limiters

The tested limiters had the following influence on the signal:

In other words, limiters increase both physical and perceptual levels, increase the density of clipped samples, decrease the crest factor and decrease macro-dynamics (LRA) given that the amount of limiting is substantial.

Compressors

As far as the compressors are concerned, the authors performed two processing sessions, using a fast attack (0.5 ms) in one case, and a slow attack (50 ms) in the other. Make-up gain is deactivated, but the resulting file is normalized.

Set with a fast attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal:

In other words, fast-attack compressors increase both physical and perceptual levels, but only slightly. They decrease the density of clipped samples, and decrease both crest factor and macro-dynamics.

Set with a slow attack, the tested compressors had the following influence on the signal:

In other words, slow-attack compressors decrease both physical and perceptual levels, decrease macro-dynamics, but have no influence on crest factor and clipped sample density.

See also

Related Research Articles

In electronics, the figures of merit of an amplifier are numerical measures that characterize its properties and performance. Figures of merit can be given as a list of specifications that include properties such as gain, bandwidth, noise and linearity, among others listed in this article. Figures of merit are important for determining the suitability of a particular amplifier for an intended use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Companding</span> Method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range

In telecommunications and signal processing, companding is a method of mitigating the detrimental effects of a channel with limited dynamic range. The name is a portmanteau of the words compressing and expanding, which are the functions of a compander at the transmitting and receiving ends, respectively. The use of companding allows signals with a large dynamic range to be transmitted over facilities that have a smaller dynamic range capability. Companding is employed in telephony and other audio applications such as professional wireless microphones and analog recording.

Dynamic range is the ratio between the largest and smallest values that a certain quantity can assume. It is often used in the context of signals, like sound and light. It is measured either as a ratio or as a base-10 (decibel) or base-2 logarithmic value of the ratio between the largest and smallest signal values.

μ-law algorithm Audio companding algorithm

The μ-law algorithm is a companding algorithm, primarily used in 8-bit PCM digital telecommunication systems in North America and Japan. It is one of the two companding algorithms in the G.711 standard from ITU-T, the other being the similar A-law. A-law is used in regions where digital telecommunication signals are carried on E-1 circuits, e.g. Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Automatic gain control</span> Electronic circuit to automatically adjust signal strength

Automatic gain control (AGC) is a closed-loop feedback regulating circuit in an amplifier or chain of amplifiers, the purpose of which is to maintain a suitable signal amplitude at its output, despite variation of the signal amplitude at the input. The average or peak output signal level is used to dynamically adjust the gain of the amplifiers, enabling the circuit to work satisfactorily with a greater range of input signal levels. It is used in most radio receivers to equalize the average volume (loudness) of different radio stations due to differences in received signal strength, as well as variations in a single station's radio signal due to fading. Without AGC the sound emitted from an AM radio receiver would vary to an extreme extent from a weak to a strong signal; the AGC effectively reduces the volume if the signal is strong and raises it when it is weaker. In a typical receiver the AGC feedback control signal is usually taken from the detector stage and applied to control the gain of the IF or RF amplifier stages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audio system measurements</span> Means of quantifying system performance

Audio system measurements are used to quantify audio system performance. These measurements are made for several purposes. Designers take measurements to specify the performance of a piece of equipment. Maintenance engineers make them to ensure equipment is still working to specification, or to ensure that the cumulative defects of an audio path are within limits considered acceptable. Audio system measurements often accommodate psychoacoustic principles to measure the system in a way that relates to human hearing.

dbx (noise reduction) Family of noise reduction systems

dbx is a family of noise reduction systems developed by the company of the same name. The most common implementations are dbx Type I and dbx Type II for analog tape recording and, less commonly, vinyl LPs. A separate implementation, known as dbx-TV, is part of the MTS system used to provide stereo sound to North American and certain other TV systems. The company, dbx, Inc., was also involved with Dynamic Noise Reduction (DNR) systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limiter</span> Electronic amplitude-limiting device

In electronics, a limiter is a circuit that allows signals below a specified input power or level to pass unaffected while attenuating (lowering) the peaks of stronger signals that exceed this threshold. Limiting is a type of dynamic range compression. Clipping is an extreme version of limiting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sound reinforcement system</span> Amplified sound system for public events

A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones, signal processors, amplifiers, and loudspeakers in enclosures all controlled by a mixing console that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or more distant audience. In many situations, a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance or alter the sound of the sources on the stage, typically by using electronic effects, such as reverb, as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered.

Audio normalization is the application of a constant amount of gain to an audio recording to bring the amplitude to a target level. Because the same amount of gain is applied across the entire recording, the signal-to-noise ratio and relative dynamics are unchanged. Normalization is one of the functions commonly provided by a digital audio workstation.

An audio leveler performs an audio process similar to compression, which is used to reduce the dynamic range of a signal, so that the quietest portion of the signal is loud enough to hear and the loudest portion is not too loud.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clipping (audio)</span> Form of waveform distortion

Clipping is a form of waveform distortion that occurs when an amplifier is overdriven and attempts to deliver an output voltage or current beyond its maximum capability. Driving an amplifier into clipping may cause it to output power in excess of its power rating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loudness war</span> Increasing levels in recorded music

The loudness war is a trend of increasing audio levels in recorded music, which reduces audio fidelity and—according to many critics—listener enjoyment. Increasing loudness was first reported as early as the 1940s, with respect to mastering practices for 7-inch singles. The maximum peak level of analog recordings such as these is limited by varying specifications of electronic equipment along the chain from source to listener, including vinyl and Compact Cassette players. The issue garnered renewed attention starting in the 1990s with the introduction of digital signal processing capable of producing further loudness increases.

Gain compression is a reduction in differential or slope gain caused by nonlinearity of the transfer function of an amplifying device for large-signal inputs.

Parallel compression, also known as New York compression, is a dynamic range compression technique used in sound recording and mixing. Parallel compression, a form of upward compression, is achieved by mixing an unprocessed 'dry', or lightly compressed signal with a heavily compressed version of the same signal. Rather than lowering the highest peaks for the purpose of dynamic range reduction, it decreases the dynamic range by raising up the softest sounds, adding audible detail. It is most often used on stereo percussion buses in recording and mixdown, on electric bass, and on vocals in recording mixes and live concert mixes.

De-essing is any technique intended to reduce or eliminate the excessive prominence of sibilant consonants, such as the sounds normally represented in English by "s", "z", "ch", "j" and "sh", in recordings of the human voice. Sibilance lies in frequencies anywhere between 2 and 10 kHz, depending on the individual voice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audio & Design (Recording) Ltd</span>

Audio & Design (Recording) Ltd are an English based company who specialised in the development and production of professional audio processors, in the form of limiters, compressors, expanders & equalisers. The company were one of the first to introduce Field-effect transistors into a commercially available limiter amplifier in 1966. Audio & Design (Recording) equipment has been widely used by professional studios, music artists and the broadcasting industry throughout the world. Recently the company has installed and serviced the BBC World Service's multi Terabyte archive installation using Storage area network technology (SAN).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audio mixing (recorded music)</span> Audio mixing to yield recorded sound

In sound recording and reproduction, audio mixing is the process of optimizing and combining multitrack recordings into a final mono, stereo or surround sound product. In the process of combining the separate tracks, their relative levels are adjusted and balanced and various processes such as equalization and compression are commonly applied to individual tracks, groups of tracks, and the overall mix. In stereo and surround sound mixing, the placement of the tracks within the stereo field are adjusted and balanced. Audio mixing techniques and approaches vary widely and have a significant influence on the final product.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1176 Peak Limiter</span> Audio effect unit

The 1176 Peak Limiter is a dynamic range compressor designed by the American engineer Bill Putnam and introduced by UREI in 1967. Derived from the 175 and 176 tube compressors, it marked the transition from vacuum tubes to solid-state technology.

EBU R 128 is a recommendation for loudness normalisation and maximum level of audio signals. It is primarily followed during audio mixing of television and radio programmes and adopted by broadcasters to measure and control programme loudness. It was first issued by the European Broadcasting Union in August 2010 and most recently revised in August 2020.

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