Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. As of 2015, 26 plant species have been genetically modified and approved for commercial release in at least one country. The majority of these species contain genes that make them either tolerant to herbicides or resistant to insects. Other common traits include virus resistance, delayed ripening, modified flower colour or altered composition. In 2014, 28 countries grew GM crops, and 39 countries imported but did not grow them. [1]
Regulations regarding the commercialisation of genetically modified crops are mostly conducted by individual countries. For cultivation, environmental approval determines whether a crop can be legally grown. Separate approval is generally required to use GM crops in food for human consumption or as animal feed. [2] [3]
GM crops were first planted commercially on a large scale in 1996, in the US, China, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. [1] Some countries have approved but not actually cultivated GM crops, due to public uncertainty or further government restrictions, while at the same time, they may import GM foods for consumption. For example, Japan is a leading GM food importer, and permits but has not grown GM food crops. The European Union regulates importation of GM foods, while individual member states determine cultivation. [4] In the US, separate regulatory agencies handle approval for cultivation (USDA, EPA) and for human consumption (FDA). [5]
Two genetically modified crops have been approved for food use in some countries, but have not obtained approval for cultivation. A GM Melon engineered for delayed senescence was approved in 1999 and a herbicide tolerant GM wheat was approved in 2004.
In 2014, 181.5 million hectares of genetically modified crops were planted in 28 countries. Half of all GM crops planted were genetically modified soybeans, either for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. Eleven countries grew modified soybean, with the USA, Brazil and Argentina accounting for 90% of the total hectarage. Of the 111 hectares of soybean grown worldwide in 2014, 82% was genetically modified in some way. Seventeen countries grew a total of 55.2 million hectares of genetically modified maize and fifteen grew 23.9 hectares of genetically modified cotton. Nine million hectares of genetically modified canola was grown with 8 million of those in Canada. Other GM crops grown in 2014 include Alfalfa (862 000 ha), sugar beet (494 000 ha) and papaya (7 475 ha). In Bangladesh a genetically modified eggplant was grown commercially for the first time on 12 ha. [6]
The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. In 2014, 154 million hectares were planted with a herbicide resistant crop and 78.8 million hectares had insect resistant. This include 51.4 million hectares planted in thirteen countries that contained both herbicide tolerance and insect resistance. Less than one million hectares contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence, modifying flower colour and altering the plants composition. Drought tolerant maize was planted for just the second year in the USA on 275 000 hectares. [6]
Genetically modified crops engineered to resist herbicides are now more available than conventionally bred resistant varieties. [7] They comprised 83% of the total GM crop area, equating to just under 8% of the arable land worldwide. [7] Approval has been granted to grow crops engineered to be resistant to the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, [8] dicamba, [9] glufosinate [10] glyphosate, [11] sulfonylurea, [12] oxynil [13] mesotrione [14] and isoxaflutole [15] Most herbicide resistant GM crops have been engineered for glyphosate tolerance, in the USA 93% of soybeans and most of the GM maize grown is glyphosate tolerant. [16]
GMO | Use | Countries approved in | First approved [17] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alfalfa | Animal feed [18] | USA | 2005 | Approval withdrawn in 2007 [19] and then re-approved in 2011 [20] |
Canola | Cooking oil | Australia | 2003 | |
Canada | 1995 | |||
USA | 1995 | |||
Cotton | Fiber Cottonseed oil Animal feed [18] Except in India, where Cottonseed oil used for human consumption | Argentina | 2001 | |
Australia | 2002 | |||
Brazil | 2008 | |||
Colombia | 2004 | |||
Costa Rica | 2008 | |||
India | 2002 | |||
Mexico | 2000 | |||
Paraguay | 2013 | |||
South Africa | 2000 | |||
USA | 1994 | |||
Maize | Animal feed | Argentina | 1998 | |
Brazil | 2007 | |||
Canada | 1996 | |||
Colombia | 2007 | |||
Cuba | 2011 | |||
European Union | 1998 | Grown in Portugal, Spain, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Romania [21] | ||
Honduras | 2001 | |||
Paraguay | 2012 | |||
Philippines | 2002 | |||
South Africa | 2002 | |||
USA | 1995 | |||
Uruguay | 2003 | |||
Soybean | Animal feed | Argentina | 1996 | |
Bolivia | 2005 | |||
Brazil | 1998 | |||
Canada | 1995 | |||
Chile | 2007 | |||
Costa Rica | 2001 | |||
Mexico | 1996 | |||
Paraguay | 2004 | |||
South Africa | 2001 | |||
USA | 1993 | |||
Uruguay | 1996 | |||
Sugar Beet | Food [22] | Canada | 2001 | |
USA | 1998 | Commercialised 2007, [23] production blocked 2010, resumed 2011. [22] |
Most currently available genes used to engineer insect resistance come from the Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium. Most are in the form of delta endotoxin genes known as cry proteins, while a few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins. [24] Insect resistant crops target various species of coleopteran (beetles) [25] and lepidopteran (moths). [26] The only gene commercially used to provide insect protection that does not originate from B. thuringiensis is the Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). CpTI was first approved for use cotton in 1999 and is currently undergoing trials in rice. [27] [28]
GMO | Use | Countries approved in | First approved [17] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cotton | Fiber Cottonseed oil Animal feed [18] | Argentina | 1998 | |
Australia | 2003 | |||
Brazil | 2005 | |||
Burkina Faso | 2009 | |||
China | 1997 | |||
Colombia | 2003 | |||
Costa Rica | 2008 | |||
India | 2002 | Largest producer of Bt cotton [29] | ||
Mexico | 1996 | |||
Myanmar | 2006 [N 1] | |||
Pakistan | 2010 [N 1] | |||
Paraguay | 2007 | |||
South Africa | 1997 | |||
Sudan | 2012 | |||
USA | 1995 | |||
Eggplant | Food | Bangladesh | 2013 | 12 ha planted on 120 farms in 2014 [30] |
Maize | Animal feed | Argentina | 1998 | |
Brazil | 2005 | |||
Columbia | 2003 | |||
Mexico | 1996 | Centre of origin for maize [31] | ||
Paraguay | 2007 | |||
Philippines | 2002 | |||
South Africa | 1997 | |||
Uruguay | 2003 | |||
USA | 1995 | |||
Poplar | Tree | China | 1998 | 543 ha of bt poplar planted in 2014 [32] |
Many varieties of GM crops contain more than one resistance gene. This could be in the form of multiple insect resistant genes, multiple herbicide tolerance genes or a combination of the herbicide and insect resistant genes. Smartstax is a brand of GM maize that has eight different genes added to it, making it resistant to two types of herbicides and toxic to six different species of insects. [33]
While most crops are engineered to resist insects or tolerate herbicides some crops have been developed for other traits. Flowers have been engineered to display colours that they cannot do so naturally (in particular the blue color in roses). A few crops, like the genetically modified papaya, are engineered to resist viruses. Other modifications alter the plants composition, with the aim of making it more nutritious, longer lasting or more industrially useful. Recently crops engineered to tolerate drought have been commercialised.
GMO | Use | Trait | Countries approved in | First approved [17] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Canola | Cooking oil Emulsifiers in packaged foods [18] | High laurate canola | Canada | 1996 | |
USA | 1994 | ||||
Phytase production | USA | 1998 | |||
Carnation | Ornamental | Delayed senescence | Australia | 1995 | |
Norway | 1998 | ||||
Modified flower colour | Australia | 1995 | |||
Colombia | 2000 | In 2014 4 ha were grown in greenhouses for export [34] | |||
European Union | 1998 | Two events expired 2008, another approved 2007 | |||
Japan | 2004 | ||||
Malaysia | 2012 | For ornamental purposes | |||
Norway | 1997 | ||||
Maize | Animal feed | Increased lysine | Canada | 2006 | |
USA | 2006 | ||||
Drought tolerance | Canada | 2010 | |||
USA | 2011 | ||||
Papaya | Food [18] | Virus resistance | China | 2006 | |
USA | 1996 | Mostly grown in Hawaii [18] | |||
Petunia | Ornamental | Modified flower colour | 1998 [N 1] | ||
Potato | Food [18] | Virus resistance | Canada | 1999 | |
USA | 1997 | ||||
Industrial [35] | Modified starch | USA | 2014 | ||
Rose | Ornamental | Modified flower colour | Australia | 2009 | Surrendered renewal |
Colombia | 2010 [N 2] | Greenhouse cultivation for export only. | |||
Japan | 2008 | ||||
USA | 2011 | ||||
Soybean | Animal feed | Increased oleic acid production | Argentina | 2015 | |
Canada | 2000 | ||||
USA | 1997 | ||||
Stearidonic acid production | Canada | 2011 | |||
USA | 2011 | ||||
Squash | Food [18] | Virus resistance | USA | 1994 | |
Sugar Cane | Food | Drought tolerance | Indonesia | 2013 | Environmental certificate only |
Tobacco | Cigarettes | Nicotine reduction | USA | 2002 |
GMO | Use | Trait | Countries approved in | First approved [17] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Potato | Food [18] | Insect resistance | Canada | 1995 | Withdrawn from market 2001 [36] |
USA | 1994 | ||||
Industrial [35] | Modified starch | European Union | 2010 | Development stopped 2012 [37] | |
Rice | Food | Insect resistance | Iran | 2004 | Grown on 4000 ha in 2005 [38] |
Tobacco | Cigarettes | Herbicide resistance | China | 1992 [39] | Not grown since 1995 due to strong opposition from tobacco importers. [39] [40] |
Tomato | Food | Delayed softening | USA | 1992 | Production stopped 1997 [41] First GM food (see Flavr Savr) |
GMO | Use | Trait | Countries approved in | First approved [17] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apple | Food [18] | Delayed browning | Canada | 2015 | |
USA | 2015 | ||||
Bean | Viral disease resistance | Brazil | 2011 | ||
Chicory | Animal feed | Herbicide tolerance | USA | 1997 | |
Eucalyptus | Tree | Altered growth | Brazil | 2015 | |
Flax | Linseed Oil | Herbicide tolerance | USA | 1999 | Canada gained approval in 1996, but it was rescinded in 2001 [42] |
Grass | Ornamental Turfgrass | Herbicide tolerance | USA | 2003 | Rescinded approval in 2017 due to seed contamination in Oregon [43] |
Plum | Food | Virus resistance | USA | 2007 | |
Potato | Food [18] | Reduced acrylamide Blackspot bruise tolerance Late blight resistance | USA | 2015 | |
Virus resistance | Canada | 1999 | |||
USA | 1997 | ||||
Industrial [35] | Modified starch | USA | 2014 | ||
Sweet pepper | Food | Virus resistance | China | 1998 |
Country | GM food | Ha grown in 2014 [44] |
---|---|---|
Argentina | Cotton | 530 000 |
Maize | 3 000 000 | |
Soybean | 20 800 000 | |
Australia | Canola | 342 000 |
Carnation | ||
Cotton | 200 000 | |
Bangladesh | Eggplant | 12 |
Brazil | Cotton | 600 000 |
Maize | 12 500 000 | |
Soybean | 29 100 000 | |
Bolivia | Soybean | 1 000 000 |
Burkina Faso | Cotton | 454,124 [N 3] |
Canada | Canola | 8 000 000 |
Maize | 1 400 000 | |
Soybean | 2 200 000 | |
Sugar beet | 15 000 | |
Chile | Canola | 2 000 |
Maize | 7 000 | |
Soybean | 1 000 | |
China | Cotton | 3 900 000 |
Papaya | 8 475 | |
Poplar | 543 | |
Sweet pepper | ||
Tomato | ||
Colombia | Cotton | 18 000 |
Maize | 81 000 | |
Costa Rica | Cotton | 36.3 |
Soybean | 1.7 | |
Cuba | Maize | 3 000 |
Czech Republic | Maize | 1,754 |
Honduras | Maize | 29 000 |
India | Cotton | 11 600 000 |
Mexico | Cotton | 160 000 |
Soybean | 10 000 | |
Myanmar | Cotton | 318,000 |
Pakistan | Cotton | 2 850 000 |
Paraguay | Cotton | 36 000 |
Maize | 500 000 | |
Soybean | 3 300 000 | |
Philippines | Maize | 831 000 |
Portugal | Maize | 8 542 |
Romania | Maize | 771 |
Slovakia | Maize | 441 |
South Africa | Cotton | 9 000 |
Maize | 2 150 000 | |
Soybean | 552 000 | |
Spain | Maize | 131,538 |
Sudan | Cotton | 90 000 |
United States of America | Alfalfa | 862 000 |
Canola | 685 000 | |
Cotton | 4 500 000 | |
Maize | 34 500 000 | |
Papaya | 1 000 | |
Potato | ||
Soybean | 32 300 000 | |
Squash | 1 000 | |
Sugar beet | 479 000 | |
Uruguay | Maize | 90 000 |
Soybean | 1 550 000 |
The following graph shows the area planted in GM crops in the five largest GM crop producing countries. The area planted is presented along the y axis in thousands of hectares while the year is along the x axis. [N 4]
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.
Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.
Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.
Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Bt cotton is a genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton variety that produces an insecticide to combat bollworm.
Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.
The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) is a non-profit international organization that shares agricultural biotechnology, focusing on genetic engineering.
Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability is most often taken advantage by genetic engineers through selecting cells that can successfully be transformed into an adult plant which can then be grown into multiple new plants containing transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.
Roundup Ready is the Monsanto trademark for its patented line of genetically modified crop seeds that are resistant to its glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup.
The United States is the largest grower of commercial crops that have been genetically engineered in the world, but not without domestic and international opposition.
Genetically modified wheat is wheat that has been genetically engineered by the direct manipulation of its genome using biotechnology. As of 2020, no GM wheat is grown commercially, although many field tests have been conducted, with one wheat variety, Bioceres HB4 Wheat, obtaining regulatory approval from the Argentinean government.
Genetically modified rice are rice strains that have been genetically modified. Rice plants have been modified to increase micronutrients such as vitamin A, accelerate photosynthesis, tolerate herbicides, resist pests, increase grain size, generate nutrients, flavors or produce human proteins.
A genetically modified soybean is a soybean that has had DNA introduced into it using genetic engineering techniques. In 1996, the first genetically modified soybean was introduced to the U.S. by Monsanto. In 2014, 90.7 million hectares of GM soybeans were planted worldwide, making up 82% of the total soybeans cultivation area.
Genetically modified canola is a genetically modified crop. The first strain, Roundup Ready canola, was developed by Monsanto for tolerance to glyphosate, the active ingredient in the commonly used herbicide Roundup.
Cry1Ac protoxin is a crystal protein produced by the gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) during sporulation. Cry1Ac is one of the delta endotoxins produced by this bacterium which act as insecticides. Because of this, the genes for these have been introduced into commercially important crops by genetic engineering in order to confer pest resistance on those plants.
The Enlist Weed Control System is an agricultural system that includes seeds for genetically modified crops that are resistant to Enlist and the Enlist herbicide; spraying the herbicide will kill weeds but not the resulting crop. The system was developed by Dow AgroSciences, part of Dow Chemical Company. In October 2014 the system was registered for restricted use in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin by the US Environmental Protection Agency. In 2013, the system was approved by Canada for the same uses.
A genetically modified sugar beet is a sugar beet that has been genetically engineered by the direct modification of its genome using biotechnology. Commercialized GM sugar beets make use of a glyphosate-resistance modification developed by Monsanto and KWS Saat. These glyphosate-resistant beets, also called 'Roundup Ready' sugar beets, were developed by 2000, but not commercialized until 2007. For international trade, sugar beets have a Maximum Residue Limit of glyphosate of 15 mg/Kg at harvest. As of 2016, GMO sugar beets are grown in the United States and Canada. In the United States, they play an important role in domestic sugar production. Studies have concluded the sugar from glyphosate-resistant sugar beets is molecularly identical to and so has the same nutritional value as sugar from conventional (non-GMO) sugar beets.
India and China are the two largest producers of genetically modified products in Asia. India currently only grows GM cotton, while China produces GM varieties of cotton, poplar, petunia, tomato, papaya and sweet pepper. Cost of enforcement of regulations in India are generally higher, possibly due to the greater influence farmers and small seed firms have on policy makers, while the enforcement of regulations was more effective in China. Other Asian countries that grew GM crops in 2011 were Pakistan, the Philippines and Myanmar. GM crops were approved for commercialisation in Bangladesh in 2013 and in Vietnam and Indonesia in 2014.