Media coverage of the 2016 United States presidential election

Last updated

Media coverage of the 2016 presidential election was a source of controversy during and after the 2016 election, with various candidates, campaigns and supporters alleging bias against candidates and causes.

Contents

Studies have shown that all 2016 candidates received vastly less media coverage than Donald Trump. [1] [2] Trump received more extensive media coverage than Ted Cruz, John Kasich, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders combined during a time when those were the only primary candidates left in the race. [3] The Democratic primary received substantially less coverage than the Republican primary. [1] [4] Sanders received the most positive coverage of any candidate overall, whereas his opponent in the Democratic primary, Hillary Clinton, received the most negative coverage. [1] [2] [5] Among the general election candidates, Trump received inordinate amounts of coverage on his policies and issues, as well as on his personal character and life, whereas Hillary Clinton's emails controversy was a dominant feature of her coverage, earning more media coverage than all of her policy positions combined. [6] [7] [8] [9]

Donald Trump

Trump benefited from free media more than any other candidate, and the coverage was according to a study reviewing three sources of data, "not particularly negative, either overall or relative to other candidates." [1] From the beginning of his campaign through February 2016, Trump received almost $2 billion in free media attention, twice the amount that Clinton received. [10] According to data from the Tyndall Report , which tracks nightly news content, through February 2016, Trump alone accounted for more than a quarter of all 2016 election coverage on the evening newscasts of NBC, CBS and ABC, more than all the Democratic campaigns combined. [11] [12] [13] Observers noted Trump's ability to garner constant mainstream media coverage "almost at will". [14] However, Trump frequently criticized the media for writing what he alleged to be false stories about him [15] and he has called upon his supporters to be "the silent majority". [16] Trump also said the media "put false meaning into the words I say", and says he does not mind being criticized by the media as long as they are honest about it. [17] [18] During and after his presidential campaign and election, Donald Trump popularized the term "fake news", which he frequently accused mainstream media outlets of. [19] [20]

A 2018 study found that media coverage of Trump led to increased public support for him during the primaries. The study showed that Trump received nearly $2 billion in free media, more than double any other candidate. Political scientist John M. Sides argued that Trump's polling surge was "almost certainly" due to frequent media coverage of his campaign. Sides concluded "Trump is surging in the polls because the news media has consistently focused on him since he announced his candidacy on June 16". [21] Prior to clinching the Republican nomination, Trump received little support from establishment Republicans. [22]

Hillary Clinton

In her 2017 memoir What Happened , Clinton argued that the media was one of several contributing factors to her loss. [23] [24]

Analyses by Columbia Journalism Review, the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society at Harvard University, and the Shorenstein Center at the Harvard Kennedy School show that the Clinton email controversy received more coverage in mainstream media outlets than any other topic during the 2016 presidential election. [6] [7] [8] The New York Times ' coverage of the email controversy was notoriously extensive; according to a Columbia Journalism Review analysis, "in just six days, The New York Times ran as many cover stories about Hillary Clinton's emails as they did about all policy issues combined in the 69 days leading up to the election (and that does not include the three additional articles on October 18, and November 6 and 7, or the two articles on the emails taken from John Podesta)." [6] In attempting to explain the lopsided coverage, the Columbia Journalism Review speculates, "In retrospect, it seems clear that the press in general made the mistake of assuming a Clinton victory was inevitable, and were setting themselves as credible critics of the next administration." [6]

Media commentators drew comparisons of Clinton's email usage to past political controversies. Pacific Standard magazine published an article in May 2015, comparing the email controversy and her response to it with the Whitewater investigation 20 years earlier. [25]

Hillary Clinton also received significant negative attention over the 'basket of deplorables' incident where Hillary labelled half of Trump's supporters as deplorable. Furthermore, her past scandals such as Benghazi and the persistent email scandal led to Hillary being dogged throughout the campaign with 'Crooked Hillary'.

Among the DNC material published by WikiLeaks in 2016 were emails showing that CNN contributor Donna Brazile shared questions with the Clinton campaign prior to debates during the DNC primaries. Brazile resigned from CNN in October 2016 due to the revelations. [26]

Gender Bias in Media

The issue of gender played a major role in the outcome of the 2016 presidential election. Hillary Clinton became subject to enormous media interest specifically regarding her gender and it affected her campaign and electability in a negative way. The women's card is a term that was used significantly in the 2016 presidential election by the media. It started when the Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump accused Hillary Clinton of “playing the women's card” and stated that "if Hillary Clinton were a man, she wouldn’t get 5 percent of the vote." [27]

Trump's statement was interpreted by the media as saying Clinton somehow has an unfair advantage because she was a woman. In the 2016 election, Clinton leaned into her gender as an asset and highlighted that her being in office would break the glass ceiling for future female candidates. [28] The media accused Clinton of attempting to appeal to voters by invoking her gender to distinguish herself. [29] There was a study conducted that looked into the characteristics of the ideal president. The study found that the characteristics associated with the role tend to be more masculine rather than feminine traits. The candidate had to display masculine traits to be in such a leadership position and they also had to fit into their own gender role to be liked. Politics is still a heavily gendered arena, dominated by male political actors and masculine behaviours. [30]  From the first time she announced her intentions to run for president, Clinton highlighted her commitment to inclusion and nurturing values, which are more typically feminine characteristics. As often stated in analysis of this topic, “women are taken most seriously when they put themselves into traditionally masculine roles such as politics but only on behalf of traditionally feminine values.” [31] This was a constant barrier that Clinton faced throughout her campaign, as the media and her opponents criticized her for not portraying enough feminine characteristics. In the case of Trump, he embraced his masculine characteristics and was praised for them because it was congruent with presidential characteristics.  According to this study, the ideal feminine characteristics for women and the masculine characteristics of a president are incompatible. Clinton leaned more into the masculine characters and did not represent her femininity to the same degree that Trump embraced masculinity. Research suggests that women have to be just enough masculine to be strong leaders but also feminine enough to be liked. [32] A majority of her masculine traits were showcased by the media in a negative light.

Clinton was frequently portrayed as a candidate with a corrupt political history who has engaged in corrupt behaviour to further her own goals.  A majority of the news followed her personal life and tended to focus on her appearance as well. [33] One journalist even called on her to smile more and then went on to criticize the shape of her mouth. [34] Both Trump and Clinton had scandals that emerged during the election that questioned their candidacy.  The general public holds women to a higher moral standard than men and perceives them to be more honest and trustworthy. When covering women in politics, journalists frequently use terminology that emphasizes women's traditional roles and physical appearance. They contribute to the stereotype of female politicians as indecisive, emotional, and weak. Women politicians are even held accountable for the actions of their children or husbands, whereas men politicians are rarely held to the same standard. When they are in the wrong, they are also more likely to face harsher punishment from the public. [35] For example, when it came to light that Trump had made derogatory comments about women, many people dismissed it as “locker room talk,” arguing that it was not a big deal, something that would have played out differently had the genders been reversed. [31] A majority of the news that surrounded Clinton was negative and had little to do with her policies. Only around  4 percent of Clinton-related stories during the summer of 2016 encompassed policy. The bad news outpaced her good news, usually by a wide margin, contributing to the increase in her unfavorable poll ratings. [36] Research suggests that female candidates tend to get more negative coverage and very little coverage of their qualities than their male counterparts qualifications.  [37] Hillary Clinton possessed the skills and experience usually suited for a presidential candidate than her opposition, however, she was scrutinized for it rather than preached due to her gender.

Marco Rubio

During the Republican primary, Marco Rubio criticized the media for giving his Republican primary opponent, Donald Trump, disproportionate coverage. [38] [39] He criticized the media's tendency for horserace coverage, rather than focusing on substance. [39] He also blamed the media for negative coverage of his campaign. [40] [41] He said there was "kind of a weird bias here in the media rooting for Donald Trump because they know he's the easiest Republican to beat." [42]

Ted Cruz

Ted Cruz criticized the disproportionate coverage of Trump during the Republican primary. Cruz suggested that the media was deliberately boosting Trump's candidacy, and that they were holding back damaging stories about him until he won the nomination. [43] [44] After the conspiracy tabloid the National Enquirer ran a story alleging without evidence that Cruz might be having extramarital affairs, he said that Trump and his "henchmen" had planted the story. [45] [46]

Bernie Sanders

Bernie Sanders, the Sanders campaign, supporters and alternative media sources have argued that the media was biased against Bernie Sanders, saying he did not receive adequate media coverage, that mainstream media outlets covered him in a negative light, and that there was insufficient focus on policy in media coverage. [4] [47] [48] Data shows that Sanders received two-thirds of Clinton's media coverage during the Democratic primary as a whole, and that he received the most positive coverage of any candidate. [1] [4]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election</span> 58th quadrennial U.S. presidential election

The 2016 United States presidential election was the 58th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. The Republican ticket of businessman Donald Trump and Indiana governor Mike Pence defeated the Democratic ticket of former secretary of state and First Lady of the United States Hillary Clinton and the junior senator from Virginia Tim Kaine, in what was considered one of the biggest political upsets in American history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries</span> Selection of the Democratic Party nominee

Presidential primaries and caucuses were organized by the Democratic Party to select the 4,051 delegates to the 2016 Democratic National Convention held July 25–28 and determine the nominee for president in the 2016 United States presidential election. The elections took place within all fifty U.S. states, the District of Columbia, five U.S. territories, and Democrats Abroad and occurred between February 1 and June 14, 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States elections</span>

The 2016 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. Republican nominee Donald Trump defeated Democratic former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in the presidential election, while Republicans retained control of Congress. This marked the first and most recent time Republicans won or held unified control of the presidency and Congress since 2004.

The following is a timeline of major events leading up to, during, and after the 2016 United States presidential election. The election was the 58th quadrennial United States presidential election, held on November 8, 2016. The presidential primaries and caucuses were held between February 1 and June 14, 2016, staggered among the 50 states, Washington, D.C., and U.S. territories. The U.S. Congress certified the electoral result on January 6, 2017, and the new President and Vice President were inaugurated on January 20, 2017.

Hillary Clinton is an American politician from the state of New York who was the Democratic Party's 2016 nominee for president of the United States. Clinton is the first woman in U.S. history to be nominated for president of the United States by a major political party. She was defeated in the 2016 general election by Republican Donald Trump.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign</span> First presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders

In the 2016 presidential campaign, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders sought the Democratic Party's nomination in a field of six major candidates and was the runner up with 46% of the pledged delegates behind former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who won the contest with 54%. Sanders, the junior United States senator and former Representative from Vermont, began with an informal announcement on April 30, 2015, and a formal announcement that he planned to seek the Democratic Party's nomination for President of the United States on May 26, 2015, in Burlington, Vermont. Sanders had been considered a potential candidate for president since at least September 2014. Though he had previously run as an independent, he routinely caucused with the Democratic Party, as many of his views align with Democrats. Running as a Democrat made it easier to participate in debates and get his name on state ballots.

A total of ten debates occurred among candidates in the campaign for the Democratic Party's nomination for the president of the United States in the 2016 presidential election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign</span> 2016 presidential campaign

The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump was formally launched on June 16, 2015, at Trump Tower in New York City. Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election, having won the most state primaries, caucuses, and delegates at the 2016 Republican National Convention. He chose Mike Pence, the sitting governor of Indiana, as his vice presidential running mate. On November 8, 2016, Trump and Pence were elected president and vice president of the United States. Trump's populist positions in opposition to illegal immigration and various trade agreements, such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership, earned him support especially among voters who were male, white, blue-collar, working class, and those without college degrees. Many voters in the Rust Belt, who gave Trump the electoral votes needed to win the presidency, switched from supporting Bernie Sanders to Trump after Hillary Clinton won the Democratic nomination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection</span>

This article lists potential candidates for the Democratic nomination for Vice President of the United States in the 2016 election. Former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, the 2016 Democratic nominee for President of the United States, chose Senator Tim Kaine of Virginia as her running mate. The formal nomination took place at the 2016 Democratic National Convention. The Clinton–Kaine ticket lost the 2016 presidential election to the Republican Trump–Pence ticket, and Kaine returned to the Senate following the campaign.

Newspapers and news media in the United States traditionally endorse candidates for party nomination for President of the United States, prior to endorsing one of the ultimate nominees for president. Below is a list of notable news media endorsements in 2016, by candidate, for each primary race.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election in Nevada</span> Election in Nevada

The 2016 United States presidential election in Nevada was held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016, as part of the 2016 United States presidential election in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia participated. Nevada voters chose electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote, pitting the Republican Party's nominee, businessman Donald Trump, and running mate Indiana Governor Mike Pence against Democratic Party nominee, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, and her running mate Virginia Senator Tim Kaine. Nevada has six votes in the Electoral College.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election in Vermont</span>

The 2016 United States presidential election in Vermont was held on November 8, 2016, as part of the 2016 United States presidential election in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia participated. Vermont voters chose three electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote pitting the Republican Party's nominee, businessman Donald Trump, and running mate Indiana Governor Mike Pence against Democratic Party nominee, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and her running mate, Virginia Senator Tim Kaine. Independent Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders received unsolicited write-in votes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election in Virginia</span> Election in Virginia

The 2016 United States presidential election in Virginia was held on November 8, 2016, as part of the 2016 general election in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia participated. Virginia voters chose electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote pitting the Republican Party's nominee, businessman Donald Trump, and running mate Indiana Governor Mike Pence against Democratic Party nominee, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and her running mate, Virginia Senator Tim Kaine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election in Ohio</span> Election in Ohio

The 2016 United States presidential election in Ohio was held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016, as part of the 2016 United States presidential election in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia participated. Ohio voters chose electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote, pitting the Republican Party's nominee, businessman Donald Trump, and running mate Indiana Governor Mike Pence against Democratic Party nominee, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, and her running mate Virginia Senator Tim Kaine. Ohio had 18 electoral votes in the Electoral College.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 United States presidential election in Wisconsin</span>

The 2016 United States presidential election in Wisconsin was held on November 8, 2016, as part of the 2016 United States presidential election. Wisconsin voters chose 10 electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote pitting Republican Party nominee Donald Trump against Democratic Party nominee Hillary Clinton.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 Michigan Democratic presidential primary</span> Election

The 2016 Michigan Democratic presidential primary was held on March 8 in the U.S. state of Michigan as one of the Democratic Party's primaries ahead of the 2016 presidential election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 California Democratic presidential primary</span>

The 2016 California Democratic presidential primary was held on June 7 in the U.S. state of California as one of the Democratic Party's primaries ahead of the 2016 presidential election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social media in the 2016 United States presidential election</span> Overview of social media usage in the 2016 U.S. presidential election

Social media played an important role in shaping the course of events leading up to, during, and after the 2016 United States presidential election. It enabled people to have a greater interaction with the political climate, controversies, and news surrounding the candidates. Unlike traditional news platforms, such as newspapers, radio, and magazines, social media gave people the ability to comment below a candidate's advertisement, news surrounding the candidates, or articles regarding the policy of the candidates. It also allowed people to formulate their own opinions on public forums and sites and allowed for greater interaction among voters. The accessibility of information online enabled more voters to educate themselves on candidates' positions on issues, which in turn enabled them to form unique opinions on candidates and vote on those opinions, ultimately impacting the election's outcome.

The 2016 Democratic National Committee email leak is a collection of Democratic National Committee (DNC) emails stolen by one or more hackers operating under the pseudonym "Guccifer 2.0" who are alleged to be Russian intelligence agency hackers, according to indictments carried out by the Mueller investigation. These emails were subsequently leaked by DCLeaks in June and July 2016 and by WikiLeaks on July 22, 2016, just before the 2016 Democratic National Convention. This collection included 19,252 emails and 8,034 attachments from the DNC, the governing body of the United States' Democratic Party. The leak includes emails from seven key DNC staff members, and date from January 2015 to May 2016. On November 6, 2016, WikiLeaks released a second batch of DNC emails, adding 8,263 emails to its collection. The emails and documents showed that the Democratic Party's national committee favored Clinton over her rival Bernie Sanders in the primaries. These releases caused significant harm to the Clinton campaign, and have been cited as a potential contributing factor to her loss in the general election against Donald Trump.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Media coverage of Bernie Sanders</span> Media bias controversy about 2016 and 2020 U.S. presidential candidate Bernie Sanders

The media coverage of Bernie Sanders, a U.S. Senator from Vermont, became a subject of discussion during his unsuccessful 2016 and 2020 presidential runs. His campaigns, some independent observers, as well as some media sources have said that the mainstream media in the United States is biased against Sanders. Others say that coverage is unbiased or biased in his favor. The allegations of bias primarily concern the coverage of his presidential campaigns.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 John Sides; Michael Tesler; Lynn Vavreck (2018). Identity Crisis. Princeton University Press. pp. 8, 62, 99, 104–107. ISBN   978-0-691-17419-8. Archived from the original on November 14, 2019. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
  2. 1 2 Thomas E. Patterson (13 June 2016), Pre-Primary News Coverage of the 2016 Presidential Race: Trump's Rise, Sanders' Emergence, Clinton's Struggle, archived from the original on November 27, 2019, retrieved December 1, 2019
  3. ↑ Bitecofer, Rachel (2018). The Unprecedented 2016 Presidential Election. Palgrave. pp. 36–38, 48. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61976-7. ISBN   978-3-319-61975-0.
  4. 1 2 3 Thomas E. Patterson (July 11, 2016), News Coverage of the 2016 Presidential Primaries: Horse Race Reporting Has Consequences , retrieved January 3, 2020, Over the course of the primary season, Sanders received only two-thirds of the coverage afforded Clinton. Sanders' coverage trailed Clinton's in every week of the primary season.
  5. ↑ Colleen Elizabeth Kelly (February 19, 2018), A Rhetoric of Divisive Partisanship: The 2016 American Presidential Campaign Discourse of Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, pp. 6–7, ISBN   978-1-4985-6458-8
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Don't blame the election on fake news. Blame it on the media". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
  7. 1 2 "News Coverage of the 2016 National Conventions: Negative News, Lacking Context". Shorenstein Center. September 21, 2016. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
  8. 1 2 "Partisanship, Propaganda, and Disinformation: Online Media and the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election | Berkman Klein Center". cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
  9. ↑ Bode, Leticia (2020). Words that matter : how the news and social media shaped the 2016 presidential campaign. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN   978-0-8157-3192-4. OCLC   1151408105.
  10. ↑ Nicholas Confessore & Karen Yourish, Measuring Donald Trump's Mammoth Advantage in Free Media, The New York Times (March 16, 2016).
  11. ↑ "How much does Donald Trump dominate TV news coverage? This much". CNN. 6 December 2015. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  12. ↑ Tyndall, Andrew. "COMMENTS: Campaign 2016 Coverage: Annual Totals for 2015" . Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  13. ↑ Byers, Dylan. "Donald Trump: Media King, 2015". CNN. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  14. ↑ Walsh, Kenneth. "How Donald Trump's Media Dominance Is Changing the 2016 Campaign". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on February 25, 2016. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  15. ↑ "43 Times Donald Trump Has Attacked The Media As A Presidential Candidate". The Huffington Post. 28 September 2015. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  16. ↑ Fandos, Nicholas (July 11, 2015). "Donald Trump Defiantly Rallies a New 'Silent Majority' in a Visit to Arizona". The New York Times . Retrieved July 17, 2015.
  17. ↑ Walsh, Kenneth. "Trump: Media Is 'Dishonest and Corrupt'" Archived September 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine , U.S. News & World Report (August 15, 2016).
  18. ↑ Koppel, Ted. "Trump: 'I feel I'm an honest person'", CBS News (July 24, 2016).
  19. ↑ Lind, Dara (May 9, 2018). "Trump finally admits that "fake news" just means news he doesn't like". Vox . Retrieved May 10, 2018.
  20. ↑ Murphy, Jennifer. "Library Guides: Evaluating Information: Fake news in the 2016 US Elections". libraryguides.vu.edu.au. Retrieved 2018-08-12.
  21. ↑ Reuning, Kevin; Dietrich, Nick (2018). "Media Coverage, Public Interest, and Support in the 2016 Republican Invisible Primary". Perspectives on Politics. 17 (2): 326–339. doi: 10.1017/S1537592718003274 . ISSN   1537-5927.
  22. ↑ Albert, Zachary; Barney, David J. (November 4, 2018). "The Party Reacts: The Strategic Nature of Endorsements of Donald Trump". American Politics Research. 47 (6): 1239–1258. doi:10.1177/1532673x18808022. ISSN   1532-673X. S2CID   158923761.
  23. ↑ What Happened, p. 222-23
  24. ↑ Zurcher, Anthony (2017-09-13). "The long list of who Hillary Clinton blames" . Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  25. ↑ Gerth, Jeff (March 16, 2015). "Hillary Clinton's Email Scandal Looks a Lot Like the Whitewater Investigation of 20 Years Ago". Pacific Standard. Retrieved October 13, 2015.
  26. ↑ Grynbaum, Michael M. (31 October 2016). "CNN Parts Ways With Donna Brazile, a Hillary Clinton Supporter". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
  27. ↑ Carian, Emily K.; Sobotka, Tagart Cain (2018-01-01). "Playing the Trump Card: Masculinity Threat and the U.S. 2016 Presidential Election". Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World. 4: 237802311774069. doi: 10.1177/2378023117740699 . ISSN   2378-0231. S2CID   158049294.
  28. ↑ Conroy, Meredith; Joesten Martin, Danielle; Nalder, Kim L. (2020-04-02). "Gender, Sex, and the Role of Stereotypes in Evaluations of Hillary Clinton and the 2016 Presidential Candidates". Journal of Women, Politics & Policy. 41 (2): 194–218. doi:10.1080/1554477X.2020.1731280. ISSN   1554-477X. S2CID   216254426.
  29. ↑ "What'd They Say? Transcript From Clinton-Sanders Debate". NBC News. 5 February 2016. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
  30. ↑ Godbole, Maya A.; Malvar, Noelle A.; Valian, Virginia V. (2019-07-03). "Gender, Modern Sexism, and the 2016 election". Politics, Groups, and Identities. 7 (3): 700–712. doi:10.1080/21565503.2019.1633934. ISSN   2156-5503. S2CID   198617105.
  31. 1 2 Reiheld, Alison (2017). "All the Difference in the World: Gender and the 2016 Election". Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 27 (2): E–107. doi:10.1353/ken.2017.0028. ISSN   1086-3249. S2CID   149349860.
  32. ↑ Nawabdin, Fatemah (2021-12-20). "Perspectives on Gender Stereotypes: How Did Gender-Based Perceptions Put Hillary Clinton at an Electoral Disadvantage in the 2016 Election?". Statistics, Politics and Policy. 12 (2): 457–479. doi: 10.1515/spp-2021-0014 . ISSN   2194-6299. S2CID   244077572.
  33. ↑ Harmer, Emily; Savigny, Heather; Siow, Orly (2021-01-02). "Trump, Clinton, and the Gendering of Newspaper Discourse About the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election Debates". Women's Studies in Communication. 44 (1): 81–101. doi:10.1080/07491409.2020.1752341. ISSN   0749-1409. S2CID   219433398.
  34. ↑ Cauterucci, Christina (2016-09-27). "Helpful Critiques of Hillary Clinton's Mouth Shape From Men Watching the Debate". Slate. ISSN   1091-2339 . Retrieved 2022-12-04.
  35. ↑ Kennedy, Jessica; McDonnell, Mary-Hunter; Stephens, Nicole (January 2016). "Does Gender Raise the Ethical Bar? Exploring the Punishment of Ethical Violations at Work". Academy of Management Proceedings. 2016 (1): 11664. doi:10.5465/ambpp.2016.11664abstract. ISSN   0065-0668.
  36. ↑ Patterson, Thomas E. (2016). "News Coverage of the 2016 General Election: How the Press Failed the Voters". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2884837. ISSN   1556-5068. S2CID   157109290.
  37. ↑ Van der Pas, Daphne Joanna; Aaldering, Loes (February 2020). "Gender Differences in Political Media Coverage: A Meta-Analysis". Journal of Communication. 70 (1): 114–143. doi: 10.1093/joc/jqz046 . ISSN   0021-9916.
  38. ↑ Stokols, Eli; Goldmacher, Shane (15 March 2016). "Inside Marco's Hollow Campaign". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  39. 1 2 Siddiqui, Sabrina (2016-03-16). "Rubio was the Republicans' savior – but then Trump came along". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  40. ↑ "Marco Rubio Blames Failed Campaign on Unfair Media Coverage". Intelligencer. 17 March 2016. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  41. ↑ Mccaskill, Nolan D. (10 February 2016). "Rubio blames the media". POLITICO. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  42. ↑ Stein, Sam (2016-02-28). "Marco Rubio Blames The Media For The Rise Of Trump". HuffPost. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  43. ↑ WALKER, JESSE (14 August 2016). "Paranoia runs deep in America". NewsAdvance.com. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  44. ↑ Milbank, Dana (2016). "Republicans should blame themselves — not the media — for Trump". Washington Post.
  45. ↑ Diamond, Jeremy Diamond (25 March 2016). "Cruz blames Trump and his 'henchmen' for tabloid story". CNN. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  46. ↑ Gaudiano, Nicole. "Ted Cruz blames Donald Trump for 'Enquirer' affairs story". USA Today. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  47. ↑ Horowitz, Jason (2016-02-23). "As News Media Changes, Bernie Sanders's Critique Remains Constant". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2020-01-17.
  48. ↑ "This Harvard study both confirms and refutes Bernie Sanders's complaints about the media". www.boston.com. Retrieved 2020-01-17.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.