Musical analysis

Last updated
Approaches or techniques to musical analysis. Assumption and advocating could be considered missing. Musical analysis shape.png
Approaches or techniques to musical analysis. Assumption and advocating could be considered missing.

Musical analysis is the study of musical structure in either compositions or performances. [1] According to music theorist Ian Bent, music analysis "is the means of answering directly the question 'How does it work?'". [2] The method employed to answer this question, and indeed exactly what is meant by the question, differs from analyst to analyst, and according to the purpose of the analysis. According to Bent, "its emergence as an approach and method can be traced back to the 1750s. However it existed as a scholarly tool, albeit an auxiliary one, from the Middle Ages onwards." [3]

Contents

The principle of analysis has been variously criticized, especially by composers, such as Edgard Varèse's claim that, "to explain by means of [analysis] is to decompose, to mutilate the spirit of a work". [4]

Analyses

Some analysts, such as Donald Tovey (whose Essays in Musical Analysis are among the most accessible musical analyses) have presented their analyses in prose. Others, such as Hans Keller (who devised a technique he called Functional Analysis ) used no prose commentary at all in some of their work.[ citation needed ]

There have been many notable analysts other than Tovey and Keller. One of the best known and most influential was Heinrich Schenker, who developed Schenkerian analysis, a method that seeks to describe all tonal classical works as elaborations ("prolongations") of a simple contrapuntal sequence. Ernst Kurth coined the term of "developmental motif" [ citation needed ]. Rudolph Réti is notable for tracing the development of small melodic motifs through a work,[ citation needed ] while Nicolas Ruwet's analysis amounts to a kind of musical semiology.[ citation needed ]

Musicologists associated with the new musicology often use musical analysis (traditional or not) along with or to support their examinations of the performance practice and social situations in which music is produced and that produce music, and vice versa. Insights from the social considerations may then yield insight into analysis methods.

Edward T. Cone [5] argues that musical analysis lies in between description and prescription. Description consists of simple non-analytical activities such as labeling chords with Roman numerals [6] or tone-rows with integers or row-form, while the other extreme, prescription, consists of "the insistence upon the validity of relationships not supported by the text." Analysis must, rather, provide insight into listening without forcing a description of a piece that cannot be heard.

Techniques

Many techniques are used to analyze music. Metaphor and figurative description may be a part of analysis, and a metaphor used to describe pieces, "reifies their features and relations in a particularly pungent and insightful way: it makes sense of them in ways not formerly possible." [7] [ failed verification ] Even absolute music may be viewed as a "metaphor for the universe" or nature as "perfect form". [8]

Discretization

The process of analysis often involves breaking the piece down into relatively simpler and smaller parts. Often, the way these parts fit together and interact with each other is then examined. This process of discretization or segmentation is often considered, as by Jean-Jacques Nattiez, [9] necessary for music to become accessible to analysis. Fred Lerdahl [10] argues that discretization is necessary even for perception by learned listeners, thus making it a basis of his analyses, and finds pieces such as Artikulation by György Ligeti inaccessible, [11] [ verification needed ] while Rainer Wehinger [12] created a "Hörpartitur" or "score for listening" for the piece, representing different sonorous effects with specific graphic symbols much like a transcription.

Composition

Analysis often displays a compositional impulse while compositions often "display an analytical impulse" [13] but "though intertextual analyses often succeed through simple verbal description there are good reasons to literally compose the proposed connections. We actually hear how these songs [different musical settings of Goethe's "Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt"] resonate with one another, comment upon and affect one another ... in a way, the music speaks for itself". [14] This analytic bent is obvious in recent trends in popular music including the mash-ups of various songs. [13]

Analytical situations

Analysis is an activity most often engaged in by musicologists and most often applied to western classical music, although music of non-western cultures and of unnotated oral traditions is also often analysed. An analysis can be conducted on a single piece of music, on a portion or element of a piece or on a collection of pieces. A musicologist's stance is his or her analytical situation. This includes the physical dimension or corpus being studied, the level of stylistic relevance studied, and whether the description provided by the analysis is of its immanent structure, compositional (or poietic) processes, perceptual (or esthesic) processes, [15] all three, or a mixture.

Stylistic levels may be hierarchized as an inverted triangle: [16]

Nattiez outlines six analytical situations, preferring the sixth:: [17]

Poietic
processes		Immanent structures
of the work		Esthesic
processes
1♦
Immanent analysis
2♦←♦
Inductive poietics
3♦→♦
External poietics
4♦→♦
Inductive esthesics
5♦←♦
External esthesics
6♦←→♦←→♦
Communication between the three levels

Examples:

  1. "...tackles only the immanent configuration of the work." Allen Forte's musical set theory
  2. "...proceed[s] from an analysis of the neutral level to drawing conclusions about the poietic" – Reti analysis of Debussy's La cathédrale engloutie [18]
  3. The reverse of the previous, taking "a poietic document—letters, plans, sketches— ... and analyzes the work in the light of this information." Paul Mie, "stylistic analysis of Beethoven in terms of the sketches" [19] [ incomplete short citation ]
  4. The most common, grounded in "perceptive introspection, or in a certain number of general ideas concerning musical perception ... a musicologist ... describes what they think is the listener's perception of the passage", [20] [ incomplete short citation ], analysis of measures 9–11 of Bach's C minor fugue in Book I of the Well-Tempered Clavier
  5. "Begins with information collected from listeners to attempt to understand how the work has been perceived ... obviously how experimental psychologists would work"
  6. "The case in which an immanent analysis is equally relevant to the poietic as to the esthesic." Schenkerian analysis, which, based on the sketches of Beethoven (external poietics) eventually show through analysis how the works must be played and perceived (inductive esthesics)

Compositional analysis

Jacques Chailley views analysis entirely from a compositional viewpoint, arguing that, "since analysis consists of 'putting oneself in the composer's shoes,' and explaining what he was experiencing as he was writing, it is obvious that we should not think of studying a work in terms of criteria foreign to the author's own preoccupations, no more in tonal analysis than in harmonic analysis." [21]

Perceptual analysis

On the other hand, Fay argues that, "analytic discussions of music are often concerned with processes that are not immediately perceivable. It may be that the analyst is concerned merely with applying a collection of rules concerning practice, or with the description of the compositional process. But whatever he [or she] aims, he often fails—most notably in twentieth-century music—to illuminate our immediate musical experience," [22] [ incomplete short citation ] and thus views analysis entirely from a perceptual viewpoint, as does Edward T. Cone, "true analysis works through and for the ear. The greatest analysts are those with the keenest ears; their insights reveal how a piece of music should be heard, which in turn implies how it should be played. An analysis is a direction for performance," [5] and Thomson: "It seems only reasonable to believe that a healthy analytical point of view is that which is so nearly isomorphic with the perceptual act." [23]

Analyses of the immanent level

Analyses of the immanent level include analyses by Alder[ citation needed ], Heinrich Schenker, and the "ontological structuralism" of the analyses of Pierre Boulez, who says in his analysis of The Rite of Spring , [24] [ incomplete short citation ] "must I repeat here that I have not pretended to discover a creative process, but concern myself with the result, whose only tangibles are mathematical relationships? If I have been able to find all these structural characteristics, it is because they are there, and I don't care whether they were put there consciously or unconsciously, or with what degree of acuteness they informed [the composer's] understanding of his conception; I care very little for all such interaction between the work and 'genius'."

Again, Nattiez argues that the above three approaches, by themselves, are necessarily incomplete and that an analysis of all three levels is required. [25] Jean Molino [26] [ incomplete short citation ] shows that musical analysis shifted from an emphasis upon the poietic vantage point to an esthesic one at the beginning of the eighteenth century. [27]

Nonformalized analyses

Nattiez distinguishes between nonformalized and formalized analyses. Nonformalized analyses, apart from musical and analytical terms, do not use resources or techniques other than language. He further distinguishes nonformalized analyses between impressionistic, paraphrases, or hermeneutic readings of the text (explications de texte). Impressionistic analyses are in "a more or less high-literary style, proceeding from an initial selection of elements deemed characteristic," such as the following description of the opening of Claude Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun: "The alternation of binary and ternary divisions of the eighth notes, the sly feints made by the three pauses, soften the phrase so much, render it so fluid, that it escapes all arithmetical rigors. It floats between heaven and earth like a Gregorian chant; it glides over signposts marking traditional divisions; it slips so furtively between various keys that it frees itself effortlessly from their grasp, and one must await the first appearance of a harmonic underpinning before the melody takes graceful leave of this causal atonality". [28] [ incomplete short citation ]

Paraphrases are a "respeaking" in plain words of the events of the text with little interpretation or addition, such as the following description of the "Bourée" of Bach's Third Suite: "An anacrusis, an initial phrase in D major. The figure marked (a) is immediately repeated, descending through a third, and it is employed throughout the piece. This phrase is immediately elided into its consequent, which modulates from D to A major. This figure (a) is used again two times, higher each time; this section is repeated." [29] [ incomplete short citation ]

"Hermeneutic reading of a musical text is based on a description, a 'naming' of the melody's elements, but adds to it a hermeneutic and phenomenological depth that, in the hands of a talented writer, can result in genuine interpretive masterworks.... All the illustrations in Abraham's and Dahlhaus's Melodielehre (1972) are historical in character; Rosen's essays in The Classical Style (1971) [30] seek to grasp the essence of an epoch's style; Meyer's analysis of Beethoven's Farewell Sonata [31] [ incomplete short citation ] penetrates melody from the vantage point of perceived structures." He gives as a last example the following description of Franz Schubert's Unfinished Symphony: "The transition from first to second subject is always a difficult piece of musical draughtsmanship; and in the rare cases where Schubert accomplishes it with smoothness, the effort otherwise exhausts him to the verge of dullness (as in the slow movement of the otherwise great A minor Quartet). Hence, in his most inspired works the transition is accomplished by an abrupt coup de théâtre ; and of all such coups, no doubt the crudest is that in the Unfinished Symphony. Very well then; here is a new thing in the history of the symphony, not more new, not more simple than the new things which turned up in each of Beethoven's nine. Never mind its historic origin, take it on its merits. Is it not a most impressive moment?". [32]

Formalized analyses

Formalized analyses propose models for melodic functions or simulate music. Meyer distinguishes between global models, which "provide an image of the whole corpus being studied, by listing characteristics, classifying phenomena, or both; they furnish statistical evaluation," and linear models which "do not try to reconstitute the whole melody in order of real time succession of melodic events. Linear models ... describe a corpus by means of a system of rules encompassing not only the hierarchical organization of the melody, but also the distribution, environment, and context of events, examples including the explanation of 'succession of pitches in New Guinean chants in terms of distributional constraints governing each melodic interval' by Chenoweth [33] the transformational analysis by Herndon, [34] and the 'grammar for the soprano part in Bach's chorales [which,] when tested by computer ... allows us to generate melodies in Bach's style' by Baroni and Jacoboni. [35] [ This quote needs a citation ]

Global models are further distinguished as analysis by traits, which "identify the presence or absence of a particular variable, and makes a collective image of the song, genre, or style being considered by means of a table, or classificatory analysis, which sorts phenomena into classes," one example being "trait listing" by Helen Roberts, [36] and classificatory analysis, which "sorts phenomena into classes," examples being the universal system for classifying melodic contours by Kolinski. [37] Classificatory analyses often call themselves taxonomical. "Making the basis for the analysis explicit is a fundamental criterion in this approach, so delimiting units is always accompanied by carefully defining units in terms of their constituent variables." [38]

Intermediary analyses

Nattiez lastly proposes intermediary models "between reductive formal precision, and impressionist laxity." These include Schenker, Meyer (classification of melodic structure), [39] [ incomplete short citation ] Narmour, and Lerdahl-Jackendoff's "use of graphics without appealing to a system of formalized rules," complementing and not replacing the verbal analyses. These are in contrast to the formalized models of Milton Babbitt [40] and Boretz. [41] According to Nattiez, Boretz "seems to be confusing his own formal, logical model with an immanent essence he then ascribes to music," and Babbitt "defines a musical theory as a hypothetical-deductive system ... but if we look closely at what he says, we quickly realize that the theory also seeks to legitimize a music yet to come; that is, that it is also normative ... transforming the value of the theory into an aesthetic norm ... from an anthropological standpoint, that is a risk that is difficult to countenance." Similarly, "Boretz enthusiastically embraces logical formalism, while evading the question of knowing how the data—whose formalization he proposes—have been obtained". [42]

Divergent analyses

Typically a given work is analyzed by more than one person and different or divergent analyses are created. For instance, the first two bars of the prelude to Claude Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande :

Debussy Pelleas et Melisande prelude opening Debussy Pelleas et Melisande prelude opening.PNG
Debussy Pelléas et Mélisande prelude opening

are analyzed differently by Leibowitz [43] Laloy, [44] van Appledorn, [45] and Christ. [46] Leibowitz analyses this succession harmonically as D minor:I–VII–V, ignoring melodic motion, Laloy analyses the succession as D:I–V, seeing the G in the second measure as an ornament, and both van Appledorn and Christ [47] analyses the succession as D:I–VII.

Nattiez [48] argues that this divergence is due to the analysts' respective analytic situations, and to what he calls transcendent principles (1997b: 853, what George Holton might call "themata"), the "philosophical project[s]", "underlying principles", or a prioris of analyses, one example being Nattiez's use of the tripartitional definition of sign , and what, after epistemological historian Paul Veyne, he calls plots.

Van Appledorn sees the succession as D:I–VII so as to allow the interpretation of the first chord in measure five, which Laloy sees as a dominant seventh on D (V/IV) with a diminished fifth (despite that the IV doesn't arrive till measure twelve), while van Appledorn sees it as a French sixth on D, D–F♯–A♭–[C] in the usual second inversion. This means that D is the second degree and the required reference to the first degree, C, being established by the D:VII or C major chord. "The need to explain the chord in measure five establishes that C–E–G is 'equally important' as the D–(F)–A of measure one." Leibowitz [49] gives only the bass for chord, E indicating the progression I–II an "unreal" progression in keeping with his "dialectic between the real and the unreal" used in the analysis, while Christ explains the chord as an augmented eleventh with a bass of B♭, interpreting it as a traditional tertian extended chord.

Debussy's Pelleas et Melisande prelude, measures 5-6 Debussy Pelleas et Melisande prelude 5-6.PNG
Debussy's Pélleas et Mélisande prelude, measures 5–6

Not only does an analyst select particular traits, they arrange them according to a plot [intrigue].... Our sense of the component parts of a musical work, like our sense of historical 'facts,' is mediated by lived experience." (176)

While John Blacking, [50] among others, holds that "there is ultimately only one explanation and ... this could be discovered by a context-sensitive analysis of the music in culture," according to Nattiez [51] and others, "there is never only one valid musical analysis for any given work." Blacking gives as example: "everyone disagrees hotly and stakes his [or her] academic reputation on what Mozart really meant in this or that bar of his symphonies, concertos, or quartets. If we knew exactly what went on inside Mozart's mind when he wrote them, there could be only one explanation". (93) However, Nattiez points out that even if we could determine "what Mozart was thinking" we would still be lacking an analysis of the neutral and esthesic levels.

Roger Scruton, [52] in a review of Nattiez's Fondements, says one may, "describe it as you like so long as you hear it correctly ... certain descriptions suggest wrong ways of hearing it ... what is obvious to hear [in Pélleas et Mélisande] is the contrast in mood and atmosphere between the 'modal' passage and the bars which follow it." Nattiez counters that if compositional intent were identical to perception, "historians of musical language could take a permanent nap.... Scruton sets himself up as a universal, absolute conscience for the 'right' perception of the Pélleas et Mélisande. But hearing is an active symbolic process (which must be explained): nothing in perception is self-evident."

Thus Nattiez suggests that analyses, especially those intending "a semiological orientation, should ... at least include a comparative critique of already-written analyses, when they exist, so as to explain why the work has taken on this or that image constructed by this or that writer: all analysis is a representation; [and] an explanation of the analytical criteria used in the new analysis, so that any critique of this new analysis could be situated in relation to that analysis's own objectives and methods. As Jean-Claude Gardin so rightly remarks, 'no physicist, no biologist is surprised when asked to indicate, in the context of a new theory, the physical data and the mental operations that led to its formulation'. [53] [ incomplete short citation ] Making one's procedures explicit would help to create a cumulative progress in knowledge." (177)[ incomplete short citation ]

See also

Related Research Articles

A definition of music endeavors to give an accurate and concise explanation of music's basic attributes or essential nature and it involves a process of defining what is meant by the term music. Many authorities have suggested definitions, but defining music turns out to be more difficult than might first be imagined, and there is ongoing debate. A number of explanations start with the notion of music as organized sound, but they also highlight that this is perhaps too broad a definition and cite examples of organized sound that are not defined as music, such as human speech and sounds found in both natural and industrial environments. The problem of defining music is further complicated by the influence of culture in music cognition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music theory</span> Study of the practices and possibilities of music

Music theory is the study of theoretical frameworks for understanding the practices and possibilities of music. The Oxford Companion to Music describes three interrelated uses of the term "music theory": The first is the "rudiments", that are needed to understand music notation ; the second is learning scholars' views on music from antiquity to the present; the third is a sub-topic of musicology that "seeks to define processes and general principles in music". The musicological approach to theory differs from music analysis "in that it takes as its starting-point not the individual work or performance but the fundamental materials from which it is built."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnomusicology</span> Study of the cultural aspects of music

Ethnomusicology is the multidisciplinary study of music in its cultural context, investigating social, cognitive, biological, comparative, and other dimensions involved other than sound. Ethnomusicologists study music as a reflection of culture and investigate the act of musicking through various immersive, observational, and analytical approaches drawn from other disciplines such as anthropology to understand a culture’s music. This discipline emerged from comparative musicology, initially focusing on non-Western music, but later expanded to embrace the study of any and all different kinds of music of the world.

In music, serialism is a method of composition using series of pitches, rhythms, dynamics, timbres or other musical elements. Serialism began primarily with Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, though some of his contemporaries were also working to establish serialism as a form of post-tonal thinking. Twelve-tone technique orders the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, forming a row or series and providing a unifying basis for a composition's melody, harmony, structural progressions, and variations. Other types of serialism also work with sets, collections of objects, but not necessarily with fixed-order series, and extend the technique to other musical dimensions, such as duration, dynamics, and timbre.

<i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i> (opera) 1902 opera by Claude Debussy

Pelléas et Mélisande is an opera in five acts with music by Claude Debussy. The French libretto was adapted from Maurice Maeterlinck's symbolist play of the same name. It premiered at the Salle Favart in Paris by the Opéra-Comique on 30 April 1902; Jean Périer was Pelléas and Mary Garden was Mélisande, conducted by André Messager, who was instrumental in getting the Opéra-Comique to stage the work. It is the only opera Debussy ever completed.

In music, texture is how the tempo, melodic, and harmonic materials are combined in a musical composition, determining the overall quality of the sound in a piece. The texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices. For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section or another brass. The thickness also is changed by the amount and the richness of the instruments playing the piece. The thickness varies from light to thick. A piece's texture may be changed by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo, and rhythms used. The types categorized by number and relationship of parts are analyzed and determined through the labeling of primary textural elements: primary melody (PM), secondary melody (SM), parallel supporting melody (PSM), static support (SS), harmonic support (HS), rhythmic support (RS), and harmonic and rhythmic support (HRS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Motif (music)</span> Short recurring musical phrase


In music, a motif IPA: (/moʊˈtiːf/) or motive is a short musical idea, a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition. The motif is the smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity.

Indigenous music of Canada encompasses a wide variety of musical genres created by Aboriginal Canadians. Before European settlers came to what is now Canada, the region was occupied by many First Nations, including the West Coast Salish and Haida, the centrally located Iroquois, Blackfoot and Huron, the Dene to the North, and the Innu and Mi'kmaq in the East and the Cree in the North. Each of the indigenous communities had their own unique musical traditions. Chanting – singing is widely popular and most use a variety of musical instruments.

Generative music is a term popularized by Brian Eno to describe music that is ever-different and changing, and that is created by a system.

The original Tristan chord is heard in the opening phrase of Richard Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde as part of the leitmotif relating to Tristan. It is made up of the notes F, B, D♯, and G♯:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phrase (music)</span> Unit of musical meter

In music theory, a phrase is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections.

A phrase is a substantial musical thought, which ends with a musical punctuation called a cadence. Phrases are created in music through an interaction of melody, harmony, and rhythm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subject (music)</span> Musical melody on which a composition is based

In music, a subject is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a composition is based. In forms other than the fugue, this may be known as the theme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Modernism (music)</span> Changes in musical form during the early 20th Century

In music, modernism is an aesthetic stance underlying the period of change and development in musical language that occurred around the turn of the 20th century, a period of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of music, innovations that led to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to the larger identifiable period of modernism in the arts of the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation". Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no musical language, or modernist style, ever assumed a dominant position.

Inherent within musical modernism is the conviction that music is not a static phenomenon defined by timeless truths and classical principles, but rather something which is intrinsically historical and developmental. While belief in musical progress or in the principle of innovation is not new or unique to modernism, such values are particularly important within modernist aesthetic stances.

In semiotics the neutral level of a sign is the "trace" left behind; the physical or material creation or remains of esthesic and poietic processes, levels, and analyses of symbolic forms. A part of all signs according to a tri-partitional definition, it corresponds to Saussure's "sound-image".

In music theory, prolongation is the process in tonal music through which a pitch, interval, or consonant triad is considered to govern spans of music when not physically sounding. It is a central principle in the music-analytic methodology of Schenkerian analysis, conceived by Austrian theorist Heinrich Schenker. The English term usually translates Schenker's Auskomponierung. According to Fred Lerdahl, "The term 'prolongation' [...] usually means 'composing out' ."

"Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems" is an essay by Fred Lerdahl that cites Pierre Boulez's Le Marteau sans maître (1955) as an example of "a huge gap between compositional system and cognized result," though he "could have illustrated just as well with works by Milton Babbitt, Elliott Carter, Luigi Nono, Karlheinz Stockhausen, or Iannis Xenakis". To explain this gap, and in hopes of bridging it, Lerdahl proposes the concept of a musical grammar, "a limited set of rules that can generate indefinitely large sets of musical events and/or their structural descriptions". He divides this further into compositional grammar and listening grammar, the latter being one "more or less unconsciously employed by auditors, that generates mental representations of the music". He divides the former into natural and artificial compositional grammars. While the two have historically been fruitfully mixed, a natural grammar arises spontaneously in a culture while an artificial one is a conscious invention of an individual or group in a culture; the gap can arise only between listening grammar and artificial grammars. To begin to understand the listening grammar, Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff created a theory of musical cognition, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. That theory is outlined in the essay.

Music semiology (semiotics) is the study of signs as they pertain to music on a variety of levels.

In music cognition and musical analysis, the study of melodic expectation considers the engagement of the brain's predictive mechanisms in response to music. For example, if the ascending musical partial octave "do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-..." is heard, listeners familiar with Western music will have a strong expectation to hear or provide one more note, "do", to complete the octave.

The generative theory of tonal music (GTTM) is a system of music analysis developed by music theorist Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff. First presented in their 1983 book of the same title, it constitutes a "formal description of the musical intuitions of a listener who is experienced in a musical idiom" with the aim of illuminating the unique human capacity for musical understanding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Music technology</span> Use of technology by musicians

Music technology is the study or the use of any device, mechanism, machine or tool by a musician or composer to make or perform music; to compose, notate, playback or record songs or pieces; or to analyze or edit music.

References

  1. ↑ DeVoto 2003.
  2. ↑ Bent 1987, 5.
  3. ↑ Bent 1987, 6.
  4. ↑ Quoted in Bernard 1981 , 1
  5. 1 2 Cone 1960, p. 41.
  6. ↑ Sessions 1951, 7.
  7. ↑ Guck 1994, 71.
  8. ↑ Dahlhaus 1989 , 8, 29 cited in Bauer 2004 , 131
  9. ↑ Nattiez 1990.
  10. ↑ Lerdahl 1992, 112–113.
  11. ↑ Lerdahl 1988, 235.
  12. ↑ Wehinger 1970.
  13. 1 2 BaileyShea 2007, [8].
  14. ↑ BaileyShea 2007, [7].
  15. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 135–136.
  16. ↑ Nattiez 1990 , 136, who also points to Nettl 1964 , 177[ incomplete short citation ], Boretz 1972 , 146, and Meyer [ incomplete short citation ]
  17. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 140.
  18. ↑ Reti 1951, 194–206.
  19. ↑ Mie 1929.
  20. ↑ Meyer 1956, 48.
  21. ↑ Chailley 1951, 104.
  22. ↑ Fay 1971, 112.
  23. ↑ Thomson 1970, 196.
  24. ↑ Boulez 1966, 142.
  25. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 138–39.
  26. ↑ Molino 1975a, 50–51.
  27. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 137.
  28. ↑ Vuillermoz 1957, 64.
  29. ↑ Warburton 1952, 151.
  30. ↑ Rosen 1971.
  31. ↑ Meyer 1973, 242–268.
  32. ↑ Tovey 1978, p. 213, vol. 1.
  33. ↑ Chenoweth 1972, 1979.
  34. ↑ Herndon 1974, 1975.
  35. ↑ Baroni and Jacoboni 1976, [ page needed ].
  36. ↑ Roberts 1955, 222.
  37. ↑ Kolinski 1956.
  38. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 164.
  39. ↑ Meyer 1973, chapter 7.
  40. ↑ Babbitt 1972.
  41. ↑ Boretz 1969.
  42. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 167.
  43. ↑ Leibowitz 1971.
  44. ↑ Laloy 1902.
  45. ↑ van Appeldorn 1966.
  46. ↑ Christ 1966.
  47. ↑ Christ 1966, [ page needed ].
  48. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 173.
  49. ↑ Leibowitz 1971, [ page needed ].
  50. ↑ Blacking 1973, 17–18.
  51. ↑ Nattiez 1990, 168.
  52. ↑ Scruton 1978, 175–176.
  53. ↑ Gardin 1974, 69.

Sources

  • Babbitt, Milton. 1972. "Contemporary Music Composition and Music Theory as Contemporary Intellectual History". In Perspectives in Musicology: The Inaugural Lectures of the Ph. D. Program in Music at the City University of New York, edited by Barry S. Brook, Edward Downes, and Sherman Van Solkema, 270–307. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN   0-393-02142-4. Reprinted, New York: Pendragon Press, 1985. ISBN   0-918728-50-9.
  • BaileyShea, Matt. 2007. "Filleted Mignon: A New Recipe for Analysis and Recomposition". Music Theory Online 13, no. 4 (December).
  • Bauer, Amy. 2004. "'Tone-Color, Movement, Changing Harmonic Planes': Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology, edited by Arved Ashby, 121–152. Eastman Studies in Music 29. Rochester: University of Rochester Press; Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, Ltd. ISBN   1-58046-143-3.
  • Bent, Ian. 1987. Analysis. London: MacMillan Press. ISBN   0-333-41732-1.
  • Bernard, Jonathan. 1981. "Pitch/Register in the Music of Edgar Varèse." Music Theory Spectrum 3:1–25.
  • Blacking, John (1973). How Musical Is Man?. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Cited in Nattiez 1990.
  • Boretz, Benjamin. 1969. "Meta-Variations: Studies in the Foundationbs of Musical Thought (I)". Perspectives of New Music 8, no. 1 (Fall–Winter): 1–74.
  • Boretz, Benjamin. 1972. "Meta-Variations, Part IV: Analytic Fallout (I)". Perspectives of New Music 11, no. 1 (Fall–Winter): 146–223.
  • Chailley, Jacques. 1951. La musique médiévale, with a preface by Gustave Cohen. Les grands musiciens 1. Paris: Coudrier.
  • Chenoweth, Vida. 1972. Melodic Perception and Analysis. [Ukarumpa, E.H.D., Papua New Guinea]: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
  • Christ, William (1966), Materials and Structure of Music (1st ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN   0-13-560342-0, OCLC   412237 LCC   MT6 M347 1966. Cited in Nattiez 1990.
  • Cone, Edward T. (1960). "Analysis Today". In Morgan, Robert P. (ed.). Music: A View from Delft. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (published 1989). pp. 39–54. ISBN   978-0-226-11469-9. LCCN   88-20659. OCLC   18290659.
  • Dahlhaus, Carl. 1989. The Idea of Absolute Music, translated by Roger Lustig. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
  • DeVoto, Mark. 2003. "Analysis". The Harvard Dictionary of Music, fourth editions, edited by Don Michael Randel. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN   0-674-01163-5.
  • Guck, Marion A. (1994). "Rehabilitating the incorrigible", Theory, Analysis and Meaning in Music, ed. Anthony Pople. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 57–74.
  • Laloy, L. 1902. "Sur deux accords", Revue musicale. Reprinted in La musique retrouvée. Paris: Plon, 1928, pp. 115–118. Cited in Nattiez 1990.
  • Lerdahl, Fred (1988). "Chapter 10: Cognitive constraints on compositional systems". In Sloboda, John A. (ed.). Generative Processes in Music: The Psychology of Performance, Improvisation, and Composition. Clarendon Press / Oxford University Press (published 11 January 2001). pp. 231–259. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198508465.003.0010. ISBN   978-0-19-850846-5. APA PsycNet 1988-98076-010.
  • Lerdahl, Fred 1992. Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems. Contemporary Music Review 6, no. 2:97–121.
  • Leibowitz, René. 1971. "Pelléas et Mélisande ou les fantômes de la réalité", Les Temps Modernes, no. 305:891–922. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
  • Nattiez, Jean-Jacques 1990. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Caroline Abbate. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN   0-691-02714-5, 0-691-09136-6; LCCN   90--37225. French original: Musicologie générale et sémiologie, Paris, France: Christian Bourgois éditeur, 1987. Collection Musique/Passé/Présent ( ISSN   0293-6305), vol. 13. ISBN   9782267005004; LCCN   87-156250.
  • Nettl, Bruno. 1964. [ full citation needed ]. Most likely the first of the following list of Nettl's publications from 1964:
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964a. Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology. London: The Free Press of Glencoe.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964b. The Managerial Mind. [S.l.]: [S.n.]
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964c. "Report on the 1964 Annual Meeting of the Society of Ethnomusicology". African Music: Journal of the International Library of African Music 3, no. 3:117.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964d. "Book Review: A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong". Journal of the American Musicological Society 17, no. 1: 109–110.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964e. "Book Review: Deutsche Volkslieder". Ethnomusicology 8 no. 1: 90.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964f. "Book Review: The Demonstration Collection of E. M. Von Hornbostel and the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv". Ethnomusicology 8, no. 2: 203–205.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964g. "Book Review: Jahrbuch für musikalische Volks- und Völkerkunde". The Journal of American Folklore 77 no. 303:87.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964h. "Book Review: Zoltano Kodály Octogenario Sacrum". The Journal of American Folklore 77 no. 304:180.
    • Nettl, Bruno. 1964i. "A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong. Charles Haywood". Journal of the American Musicological Society 17 no. 1: 109–110. -->
  • Reti, Rudolph. 1951. The Thematic Process in Music. London: Faber & Faber.
  • Rosen, Charles. 1971. The Classical Style . New York: The Viking Press. ISBN   9780670225101.
  • Satyendra, Ramon. "Analyzing the Unity within Contrast: Chick Corea's 'Starlight'".[ full citation needed ] Cited in Stein 2005.
  • Scruton, Roger. 1978. [ full citation needed ].
  • Sessions, Roger 1951. Harmonic Practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace. LCCN 51-8476.
  • Stein, Deborah. 2005. Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-19-517010-5.
  • Tovey, Donald Francis. 1978 [1935–1939]. Essays in Musical Analysis, 6 vols. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC   912417.
  • van Appeldorn, M.-J. 1966. "Stylistic Study of Claude Debussy's Opera Pelléas et Mélisande". Ph.D. diss., Rochester: Eastman School of Music. Cited in Nattiez (1990).
  • Wehinger, Rainer (1970). Ligeti: Aritikulation: Elektronische Musik: Eine Hörpartitur[Electronic Music: An Aural Score]. Mainz: (B.) Schott('s Söhne). LCCN   73295319. OCLC   534462. Available via e.g. AbeBooks, eBay, Google Books , Peter Harrington, popsike.com, and elsewhere. Reissued in 1994 with Edition Number ED 6378-20, ISMN  9790001067935 (M001067935), Distributor Number HL49006252, and UPC   073999322132; available via Theodore Front Musical Literature. Unspecified edition available via Bridgeman Images, The Hum Blog (bradfordbailey), YouTube (Donald Craig).

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.