Octopus bocki

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Bock's pygmy octopus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Octopoda
Family: Octopodidae
Genus: Octopus
Species:
O. bocki
Binomial name
Octopus bocki
Adam, 1941

Octopus bocki is a species of octopus, which has been located near south Pacific islands such as Fiji, the Philippines, and Moorea and can be found hiding in coral rubble. [1] They can also be referred to as the Bock's pygmy octopus. They are nocturnal and use camouflage as their primary defense against predators as well as to ambush their prey. [2] [3] Their typical prey are crustaceans, crabs, shrimp, and small fish and they can grow to be up to 10cm in size. [4]

Contents

Body plan

O. bocki are multicellular and bilaterally symmetrical organisms with complex auditory, visual, and nervous systems. Lens eyes are used for sight, statocysts are used for auditory information, and their nervous system contains a large brain relative to their body size. [5] They do, however, have poor circulatory and digestive systems. Their blood pigment, hemocyanin, is inefficient at oxygen transport in comparison to the activity level of octopuses. Additionally, their digestion process can take 18-24 hours due to the secretion-absorption based cycle. [6]

Sex characteristics and reproduction

Octopus bocki show sexual dimorphism where females are larger than males. [1] They are gonochoristic and exhibit internal fertilization through the male's hectocotylus, a modified arm that transfers spermatophores to the female's mantle cavity. The larvae then produced are planktonic and grow into benthic adults. [2] The adults reproduce year-round and exhibit a life cycle with a juvenile, sub-adult, and adult stage. [7]

Defense and interaction

Between life stages, O. bocki experience differences in color patterns. Chromatophore pigments are less developed in juvenile and sub-adult species, resulting in less expression of pattern. However, a larger range of colors displayed does not correlate with more developed chromatophores in relation to predator interaction. Instead, the adult octopuses exhibit diversity in color and pattern due to more developed chromatophores when performing intraspecific interactions. Juveniles and adults display similar predatory defense mechanisms in terms of chromatophore use, but adults use chromatophores for advanced communication with other adult octopuses. [7] Another response they utilize is ink release. In both interactions with other octopuses as well as with predators, they will release a mucus and ink mixture. Though the larger role of ink is unknown, it could be used to attract or repel through chemicals. [8] Following ink release in response to predation, they will jet away and change color from a dark brown to light cream. Studies on Octopus bocki have provided evidence that the use of ink in predator reactions follows the "Blanch-Ink-Jet Maneuver" commonly described when using ink as an escape response. [9]

Intelligence

As members of the Cephalopoda, octopuses are among the most intelligent invertebrates. Their intellect is likely a result of convergent evolution with vertebrates, resulting is them having exceptionally large brains and exhibiting complex behavior. Out of the Cephalopods, which also includes squid and cuttlefish, octopuses seem to have the most complex neurology though it is not fully understood. [5] These factors make octopuses great contenders for intelligence research as the complexity and relative size of their brains is comparable to that of vertebrates. [10] Octopus bocki are among the species that have been used for such studies. [5] Research on the Bock's pygmy octopus has supplied evidence for delivering and processing of pain information. When experimentally injured they learned to avoid previously preferred chambers after receiving an injury there and began to prefer a chamber where they received pain relief like a local anaesthetic. That suggests that they may experience pain rather than just respond to pain. [10] [11] They are in fact the only invertebrate species that has provided strong evidence for advanced cognitive processing in relation to pain. [12]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Octopus</span> Soft-bodied eight-limbed order of molluscs

An octopus is a soft-bodied, eight-limbed mollusc of the order Octopoda. The order consists of some 300 species and is grouped within the class Cephalopoda with squids, cuttlefish, and nautiloids. Like other cephalopods, an octopus is bilaterally symmetric with two eyes and a beaked mouth at the centre point of the eight limbs. The soft body can radically alter its shape, enabling octopuses to squeeze through small gaps. They trail their eight appendages behind them as they swim. The siphon is used both for respiration and for locomotion, by expelling a jet of water. Octopuses have a complex nervous system and excellent sight, and are among the most intelligent and behaviourally diverse of all invertebrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Squid</span> Superorder of cephalopod molluscs

A squid is a mollusc with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight arms, and two tentacles in the orders Myopsida, Oegopsida, and Bathyteuthida. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, and a mantle. They are mainly soft-bodied, like octopuses, but have a small internal skeleton in the form of a rod-like gladius or pen, made of chitin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalopod</span> Class of mollusks

A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda such as a squid, octopus, cuttlefish, or nautilus. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, and a set of arms or tentacles modified from the primitive molluscan foot. Fishers sometimes call cephalopods "inkfish", referring to their common ability to squirt ink. The study of cephalopods is a branch of malacology known as teuthology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sentience</span> Ability to experience feelings and sensations

Sentience is the ability to experience feelings and sensations. It may not necessarily imply higher cognitive functions such as awareness, reasoning, or complex thought processes. Sentience is an important concept in ethics, as the ability to experience happiness or suffering often forms a basis for determining which entities deserve moral consideration, particularly in utilitarianism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalopod intelligence</span> Measure of cognitive ability of cephalopods

Cephalopod intelligence is a measure of the cognitive ability of the cephalopod class of molluscs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caribbean reef squid</span> Species of squid

The Caribbean reef squid, commonly called the reef squid, is a species of small, torpedo-shaped squid with undulating fins that extend nearly the entire length of the body, approximately 20 cm in length. They are most commonly found in the Caribbean Sea in small schools. As part of the Cephalopod class of Molluscs, these organisms exhibit specific characteristics to help them in their environment, such as tentacles for movement and feeding and color pigments that reflect their behavioral conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic pygmy octopus</span> Species of cephalopod

The Atlantic pygmy octopus, also known as the small-egg Caribbean pygmy octopus, is a small species of octopus in the order Octopoda. Fully grown, this cephalopod reaches a mantle length of 4.5 cm with arms up to 9 cm long. They are known for being intelligent creatures with keen senses, particularly good sight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharaoh cuttlefish</span> Species of cephalopods

The pharaoh cuttlefish is a large cuttlefish species, growing to 42 cm in mantle length and 5 kg in weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cephalopod ink</span> Dark pigment released by cephalopods

Cephalopod ink is a dark-coloured or luminous ink released into water by most species of cephalopod, usually as an escape mechanism. All cephalopods, with the exception of the Nautilidae and the Cirrina, are able to release ink to confuse predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cuttlefish</span> Order of molluscs

Cuttlefish, or cuttles, are marine molluscs of the suborder Sepiina. They belong to the class Cephalopoda which also includes squid, octopuses, and nautiluses. Cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone, which is used for control of buoyancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in fish</span>

Fish fulfill several criteria proposed as indicating that non-human animals experience pain. These fulfilled criteria include a suitable nervous system and sensory receptors, opioid receptors and reduced responses to noxious stimuli when given analgesics and local anaesthetics, physiological changes to noxious stimuli, displaying protective motor reactions, exhibiting avoidance learning and making trade-offs between noxious stimulus avoidance and other motivational requirements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in crustaceans</span> Ethical debate

There is a scientific debate which questions whether crustaceans experience pain. It is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in an animal, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.

Animal suicide is when an animal intentionally ends its own life through its actions. It implies a wide range of higher cognitive capacities that experts have been wary to ascribe to nonhuman animals such as a concept of self, death, and future intention. There is currently not enough empirical data on the subject for there to be a consensus among experts. For these reasons, the occurrence of animal suicide is controversial among academics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in invertebrates</span> Contentious issue

Pain in invertebrates is a contentious issue. Although there are numerous definitions of pain, almost all involve two key components. First, nociception is required. This is the ability to detect noxious stimuli which evokes a reflex response that moves the entire animal, or the affected part of its body, away from the source of the stimulus. The concept of nociception does not necessarily imply any adverse, subjective feeling; it is a reflex action. The second component is the experience of "pain" itself, or suffering—i.e., the internal, emotional interpretation of the nociceptive experience. Pain is therefore a private, emotional experience. Pain cannot be directly measured in other animals, including other humans; responses to putatively painful stimuli can be measured, but not the experience itself. To address this problem when assessing the capacity of other species to experience pain, argument-by-analogy is used. This is based on the principle that if a non-human animal's responses to stimuli are similar to those of humans, it is likely to have had an analogous experience. It has been argued that if a pin is stuck in a chimpanzee's finger and they rapidly withdraw their hand, then argument-by-analogy implies that like humans, they felt pain. It has been questioned why the inference does not then follow that a cockroach experiences pain when it writhes after being stuck with a pin. This argument-by-analogy approach to the concept of pain in invertebrates has been followed by others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Welfare biology</span> Proposed field of research

Welfare biology is a proposed cross-disciplinary field of research to study the positive and negative well-being of sentient individuals in relation to their environment. Yew-Kwang Ng first advanced the field in 1995. Since then, its establishment has been advocated for by a number of writers, including philosophers, who have argued for the importance of creating the research field, particularly in relation to wild animal suffering. Some researchers have put forward examples of existing research that welfare biology could draw upon and suggested specific applications for the research's findings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in cephalopods</span> Contentious issue

Pain in cephalopods is a contentious issue. Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals, or another human for that matter, cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.

<i>Wunderpus photogenicus</i> Species of cephalopod

Wunderpus photogenicus, the wunderpus octopus, is a small-bodied species of octopus with distinct white and rusty brown coloration. 'Wunderpus' from German “wunder” meaning ‘marvel or wonder’.

<i>Octopus bimaculatus</i> Species of octopus

Octopus bimaculatus, commonly referred to as Verrill's two-spot octopus, is a similar species to the Octopus bimaculoides, a species it is often mistaken for. The two can be distinguished by the difference in the blue and black chain-like pattern of the ocelli. O. bimaculatus hunt and feed on a diverse number of benthic organisms that also reside off the coast of Southern California. Once the octopus reaches sexual maturity, it shortly dies after mating, which is approximately 12–18 months after hatching. Embryonic development tends to be rapid due to this short lifespan of these organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethics of uncertain sentience</span> Applied ethics issue

The ethics of uncertain sentience refers to questions surrounding the treatment of and moral obligations towards individuals whose sentience—the capacity to subjectively sense and feel—and resulting ability to experience pain is uncertain; the topic has been particularly discussed within the field of animal ethics, with the precautionary principle frequently invoked in response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan Birch (philosopher)</span> British philosopher

Jonathan Birch is a British philosopher who is a Professor in the Department of Philosophy Logic and Scientific Method at the London School of Economics and Political Science. His work addresses the philosophy of biology, especially questions around the evolution of social behaviour and social norms, sentience, and animal welfare.

References

  1. 1 2 Cheng, Mary Anne Wong (1996). The reproductive biology of two species of pygmy octopuses Hapalochlaena lunulata and Octopus bocki (Thesis). OCLC   892837284. ProQuest   304241468.
  2. 1 2 "Octopus bocki, Bock's pygmy octopus". www.sealifebase.ca. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
  3. "Octopus bocki Adam 1941 - Encyclopedia of Life". eol.org. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
  4. "Octopus bocki Bock's Pygmy Octopus". www.reeflex.net. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  5. 1 2 3 Jamar, Charlotte. "Learning in Octopus bocki" (PDF).[ self-published source? ]
  6. Wells, M. J. (2013-06-29). Octopus: Physiology and Behaviour of an Advanced Invertebrate. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   978-94-017-2468-5.
  7. 1 2 E., Himes, Julie (2006-12-01). Ontogeny of Defense : Does Life History Affect Predator Response Behavior in the Pygmy Octopus, Octopus Bocki?. eScholarship, University of California. OCLC   1367685735.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. Huffard, Christine L.; Bartick, Mike (2015-01-02). "Wild Wunderpus photogenicus and Octopus cyanea employ asphyxiating 'constricting' in interactions with other octopuses". Molluscan Research. 35 (1): 12–16. doi:10.1080/13235818.2014.909558. ISSN   1323-5818. S2CID   84721161.
  9. Caldwell, Roy L. (2005). "An Observation of Inking Behavior Protecting Adult Octopus bocki from Predation by Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Hatchlings". Pacific Science. 59: 69–72. doi:10.1353/psc.2005.0004. hdl: 10125/24161 . S2CID   54223984.
  10. 1 2 Schnell, Alexandra K.; Clayton, Nicola S. (July 2021). "Cephalopods: Ambassadors for rethinking cognition". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 564: 27–36. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.12.062. PMID   33390247. S2CID   230487280.
  11. Crump, Andrew; Browning, Heather; Schnell, Alex; Burn, Charlotte; Birch, Jonathan (2022-01-01). "Sentience in decapod crustaceans: A general framework and review of the evidence". Animal Sentience. 7 (32). doi: 10.51291/2377-7478.1691 . ISSN   2377-7478. S2CID   249161392.
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