Failed secession movement in Penang from 1948 to 1957
Map of present-day Penang, a 1,049km (405sqmi)state in Malaysia that contained a population of 572,100 as of 1957.
The Penang secessionist movement was a separatist movement whose objective was to achieve the independence of Penang from the Federation of Malaya (now Malaysia). Between 1948 and 1957, the movement was driven by commercial elites, predominantly from non-Malay ethnic backgrounds. It stemmed from concerns that Penang's non-Malay majority would be marginalised under the Ketuanan Melayu agenda and that Penang's economic prospects would be undermined by the new Malayan government. Ultimately, the movement was defeated in Penang's legislature and attempts to garner support from the British government were unsuccessful.
Prior to World War II, the Peranakan Chinese community, also known as the "Straits Chinese", wielded significant economic and political influence in Penang, supported by extensive business networks and representation in the settlement's governance. Their allegiance to Britain over China facilitated the expansion of their political influence in George Town, particularly within the city's government and civil service.[2]
The Federation of Malaya was formed in 1949, unifying Penang and Malacca with the federated and unfederated sultanates. Penang, as a British crown colony integrated into the Malay-dominated hinterland, received a Settlement Council with local legislative powers equivalent to those of the Malay sultanates. Despite this, authority was centralised in Kuala Lumpur, the federal capital.[4]
The new federation implemented stricter citizenship rules for non-Malay residents while automatically granting citizenship to all Malay subjects of the respective sultanates. British subjects in Penang and Malacca had to demonstrate continuous residency for a number of years in either of the settlements to be eligible for federal citizenship.[2] The dissolution of the Straits Settlements and the integration of Penang into the new federation raised concerns among non-Malays regarding the potential diminishment of their political influence and rights, as the new federal government sought to expand its legal jurisdiction to Penang.[2][4]
The imposition of new tariffs and restrictions by Kuala Lumpur exacerbated discontent among the non-Malay elite, as they feared that George Town’s free port status would be eroded and Penang would become the “milking cow” for the poorer states.[2][4] As early as 1946, the British Military Administration had sought to include Penang into Malaya's customs regime, drawing criticism from the colony's business community. A petition at the time warned that the inclusion of Penang into Malaya's customs union would "reduce it to the churn of filth of a fishing village... trade assiduously built up during the last one and a half centuries will be turned to nothing, entailing untold monetary losses and hardship to the merchants in Penang".[3] In voicing support for greater decentralisation and autonomy from Kuala Lumpur, the Peranakan Chinese expressed the belief that “the needs and claims of Penang are likely to be drowned in the clamour of the ten other members of the federation for their own particular needs and claims”. Suggestions were also put forth to make George Town the capital of the federation, but it was thought that the Malay sultanates were against the idea.[4]
Economic uncertainties and concerns about non-Malay rights under the Ketuanan Melayu agenda had already bred discontent before 1948, with tensions escalating in the months following the federation's establishment. The Emergency erupted in the middle of that year, pitting the Malay-dominated armed forces against communist guerillas whose membership comprised largely of ethnic Chinese. Growing Malay extremism and the perceived British favouritism toward Malay interests deepened the underlying animosity between Malays and Chinese. Trade disruptions resulting from the Emergency and the subsequent inaction by Kuala Lumpur further fueled apprehensions about George Town's prospects as a free port.[4] Ng Sui Cham, a member of the Penang Settlement Advisory Council, remarked in 1947 that "Penang is only in name a free port but actually it has to obey every government whim and fancy".[3]
Meanwhile, Singapore had been excluded from the federation by the British due to economic and military considerations.[5] In the 1948 Singapore election, the progressives secured three of the six elective seats.[6] Alarmed by the potential loss of historic trading links with Singapore and drawing inspiration from the political climate there, Penang's Peranakan Chinese began advocating for an independent Penang. “I really cannot understand the desirability of donning the mantle of Malayan citizenship unless I am forced to. It is below my dignity to do so,” said Heah Joo Seang, president of the Penang Straits Chinese British Association (SCBA) in 1948. In response to accusations of disloyalty, Penang SCBA member Koh Sin Hock retorted, “I can claim to be more anak Pulau Pinang (a son of Penang) than 99 per cent of the Malays living here today”.[4]
Emergence of secessionism
George Town in 1950. As a free port, the city had mainly depended on maritime trade in the years prior to Malaya's independence.
In late 1948, D.A. Mackay was elected chairman of the Penang Chamber of Commerce, a European-led business grouping. Mackay firmly believed that Penang’s interests would be better served outside of the new federation.[4] He sent feelers to the Penang SCBA for a potential joint action against Penang’s merger into the federation.[4][7]
At around the same time, Singapore SCBA president Ong T. W. announced in writing to the Penang SCBA that he would internally propose the restoration of the Straits Settlements. The Penang SCBA received the two feelers within days of each other, but unlike Ong’s letter, Mackay’s made headlines in the Straits Echo.[4]
Penang SCBA president Lim Huck Aik immediately voiced his support for the secession, as were presidents N. T. Assomull of the Penang Indian Chamber of Commerce and J. P. Souter of the Settlement of Penang Association.[4] Within days, the Straits Echo, as well as the PCCC, the Penang Eurasian Association and the Penang Muslim Chamber of Commerce, formally announced their backing of the secessionist movement.[4][7]
By mid-December, an interim secessionist committee was formed by the leaders of the business groupings involved, and included even members of the Settlement and Federal legislatures. The committee proposed that “the Settlement of Penang do adopt all constitutional means for obtaining the secession of the Settlement of Penang from the Federation of Malaya and that the reversion to the Straits Settlements would be to the best interests of Penang and Province Wellesley”. The secessionist movement also gained national prominence after making the front page of The Straits Times, a leading daily in Malaya.[4]
Opposition to secessionism
By the end of 1948, race relations had deteriorated as a result of the Emergency. The secessionist committee took pains to insist that the movement was not racially motivated. Despite this, secessionism drew opposition from Malay Muslims, driven primarily by the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) out of fears that Malay interests in Penang would be subsumed in a predominantly Chinese state.[3][4] Malay-language daily Utusan Melayu called for the return of Penang to Kedah, the state from which Penang was originally carved out by the British East India Company, while UMNO founder Onn Jaafar proclaimed during an anti-secessionist demonstration that "if the Malays do not agree to it, there can be no secession".[4]
The secessionists largely disregarded the Malay Muslim opposition and instead focused on negotiations with British administrators, who feared that an independent Penang might jeopardise Malay support and lead to the partitioning of the federation. The British, preoccupied with combating the communists, considered the secessionist movement a hindrance to efforts to improve racial harmony.[4]
Certain factions within the non-Malay community also opposed Penang's secession. Tan Cheng Lock, future leader of the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), voiced concerns that Penang's secession would “shut the door to Singapore’s future entry” and weaken Chinese political power in the new federation.[4] While initially in support of secession, president A. M. Abu Bakar of the Penang Muslim Chamber of Commerce distanced himself from the movement, attributing his support to economic reasons and influence from Indian Muslim members in his organisation.[7]
Attempts towards secession
The secessionists believed that attempts to engage Malay Muslims would be unsuccessful, so they sought support from the British instead. However, early attempts at persuading the British authorities in Kuala Lumpur proved futile. The secessionists then tried introducing motions for secession in the Penang Settlement Council and the Federal Legislative Council, but these efforts also failed. They eventually turned to direct appeals to London.[4][7]
The secessionists showed little interest on the mass-based politics that was taking shape in Malaya, thus failing to capitalise on public dissatisfaction within Penang against the colonial authorities. While Singapore SCBA president Ong had proposed a prebescite as an “opening gambit”, the secessionist committee did not pursue this suggestion.[4] Instead, they met high commissionerHenry Gurney during his first official visit to Penang and another meeting was held with the British Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia Malcolm MacDonald in January 1949.[4][8] MacDonald opposed the secession, but promised to remedy “some” of Penang's grievances.[4]
Later that month, the secessionist committee rejected further discussions, opting instead to move a motion demanding Penang's secession in the Settlement and Federal legislatures.[4][9] The motion was proposed in the Settlement Council in February, where it was eventually defeated by a vote of 10 in favour and 15 against.[10] During the debate on the motion, Resident Commissioner (predecessor to the present-day Governor position) Arthur Vincent Aston said that secession was a “proposition which the federation government cannot accept”.[4][7] Despite this, the secessionists claimed “moral victory”, while The Straits Times reported that “had a free vote been allowed, the motion would have been carried by a convincing majority”.[11]
The overt rejection of Penang's secession by the federal government meant that moving a motion through the federal legislature would be moot. This forced the secessionists to appeal directly to London, sidestepping the federal government.[12][13] In a sign of declining fervour, the petition to London took five months of drafting. In July, the petition was submitted to Gurney, who sent it back for redrafting with suggestions for clarification. It was only in November when the petition was finally sent to London.[4] When Secretary of State for the ColoniesJim Griffiths asserted in September 1951 that Penang's fate was “indissolubly linked with the mainland of Malaya”, the secessionist movement reached a dead end.[4][14]
Revival and failure of secessionism
Penang-born businessman Heah Joo Seang played an active role in pushing for Penang's secession from Malaya.
By early 1949, racial tensions had worsened to the point where a shift in approach to win over the non-Malays was required, rather than driving them towards the communist camp. This period saw the emergence of Malay moderation, as well as the abandonment of attempts to extend banishment and double jeopardy powers to Penang by British administrators.[4] To address the grievances of secessionists, the British promised greater decentralisation and guaranteed George Town’s free port status. By 1951, municipal elections for George Town were reintroduced.[4][7] Additionally, the establishment of MCA in 1949 provided an alternative for Chinese political participation in the new federation.[4]
The commitment of the secessionists waned by the end of 1949; however, in 1953 the UMNO–MCA alliance announced their intent to push for the merger of Singapore into the federation. Singapore SCBA president Ong was against the merger, stating indignantly that Penang and Malacca should try to secede. Ong unexpectedly found support from Sultan Ibrahim of Johor.[4] In his letter to The Straits Times, the Sultan stated, “I say Singapore, Penang and Malacca should be Straits Settlements for ever... why did they make a federation of all Malaya? Why did they put in Penang and Malacca?”.[4][15]
As political discourse had shifted towards Malaya's imminent independence, the secessionists felt it prudent to raise concerns on Penang's future. In response to the renewed secessionist sentiment, Heah said, “although the Colonial Office has invariably said “no” to the two Settlements’ representation for secession, I feel we should try again and break away from the Federation”. However, no substantial action was taken in the subsequent years, while secessionist sentiments fluctuated alongside Malay calls for the return of Penang to Kedah.[4]
In February 1956, the Penang SCBA declared that “the best solution would be for all the nine states and two settlements to enjoy political autonomy and form a United States of Malaya. Failing this, we have no alternative but to agitate for a dominion status for Penang, Malacca and Singapore… In other words, we will revert to our former status (as Straits Settlements)".[16] Heah added that Penang SCBA was planning to send a five-man delegation to London. Chief Minister of Malaya Tunku Abdul Rahman responded by reassuring Penang that it should not fear the imposition of anyone's will upon it.[4]
In April that year, Tunku Abdul Rahman made his first working visit to Penang and emphasised the "absolute necessity" of Penang's merger into the federation, stating that “independence would be meaningless if this settlement were left out”.[17] Koh, a fervent supporter of secession, responded by proposing Penang as a separate state politically associated with the United Kingdom.[16] Onn Jaafar suggested a referendum for Penang with limited choices of either merging into Kedah or being a "separate State of the Union". A commentator argued that "agitation for Penang’s secession can only result in the stiffening of Malay demands for union with Kedah".[4]
As late as January 1957, the secessionists were demanding “a loose federation between Singapore, Penang and Malacca under their own autonomous government”.[16][18] By this point, the commitment to secession had substantially diminished. Heah not only led the Penang SCBA, but also concurrently served as the vice president of Parti Negara, a national-level political party. The conflicting responsibilities eventually led to a shift in direction for the Penang SCBA. As Malaya's independence approached, secessionist sentiments gradually faded.[4]
In a speech to the Malaysian Parliament on 27 May 1965, Lee said, “they want us to secede and leave our friends from Sabah and Sarawak, from Penang and Malacca… at their tender mercies. We cannot oblige, Mr Speaker, sir”.[22] Upon returning from an overseas trip in late May, Lee was reported to have suggested that “alternative arrangements” should be made “now instead of waiting for another five or 10 years”. He added later that one possible arrangement would be to consolidate “Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak, and possibly Malacca and Penang as well”.[19]
The Straits Times’ headline stated that Lee was now suggesting the partitioning of Malaysia.[19][23] At a subsequent press conference, Lee denied the allegations of proposing partition, saying that “I am the last man to suggest partition of Malaysia. The Tengku knows that the only alternative arrangement I envisage is within Malaysia, that accommodation and adjustment can be made within Malaysia”.[24] Nonetheless, the then Chief Minister of PenangWong Pow Nee, along with the ruling parties in Sabah, Sarawak and Malacca, distanced themselves from Lee's proposal.[19][25] Worsening tensions and threats of more violence by some quarters within the ruling UMNO eventually resulted in Singapore's expulsion from the federation.[20]
Following Malaysia's independence in 1957, Penang, the most economically-dynamic state in the new federation with the only non-Malay majority population, was said to be on par with Singapore and Hong Kong.[26] However in 1969, the Malaysian federal government revoked George Town's free port status, sparking the city's decline and widespread unemployment within the state. This became a significant issue in the 1969 state election, which resulted in the opposition Gerakan (a splinter party of the UDP) taking control of the Penang state government from the ruling Alliance that included UMNO and MCA.[27]
In 2008, Penang once again became an opposition-controlled state when Pakatan Rakyat (now Pakatan Harapan) won the state election that year. Partisanship worsened under Najib Razak's administration, as the federal government slashed federal funds for Penang and bypassed the state government in development policies.[28][29] This situation persisted until the 2018 elections, when Pakatan Harapan assumed federal power for the first time in Malaysia's history.[28]
Malaysia is a modern concept, created in the second half of the 20th century. However, contemporary Malaysia regards the entire history of Malaya and Borneo, spanning thousands of years back to prehistoric times, as its own history.
The Malayan Union was a union of the Malay states and the Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca. It was the successor to British Malaya and was conceived to unify the Malay Peninsula under a single government to simplify administration. Following opposition by the ethnic Malays, the union was reorganised as the Federation of Malaya in 1948.
The Federation of Malaya, more commonly known as Malaya, was a country of what previously had been the Malayan Union and, before that, British Malaya. It comprised eleven states – nine Malay states and two of the Straits Settlements, Penang and Malacca. It was established on 1 February 1948.
Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah was a Malaysian statesman and lawyer who served as the first prime minister of Malaysia and the head of government of its predecessor states from 1955 to 1970. He was the first chief minister of the Federation of Malaya from 1955 to 1957. He supervised the independence process that culminated on 31 August 1957. As an independent Malaysia's first prime minister, he dominated the country's politics for the next 13 years.
In Malaysia, the Yang di-Pertua Negeri is a constitutional title given to the head of state in states without a ruler, namely: Penang, Malacca, Sabah and Sarawak. This is in contrast to a Ruler which is a constitutional title given to states with hereditary monarchies, namely: the Sultans of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu; the Raja of Perlis: and the Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan.
Tun Sir Tan Cheng Lock KBE, SMN, DPMJ, JP was a Malaysian Peranakan businessman and a key public figure who devoted his life to fighting for the rights and the social welfare of the Chinese community in Malaya. Tan was also the founder and the first president of the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), which advocated his cause for the Malayan Chinese population.
PAP–UMNO relations refers to the occasionally-turbulent relationship between the People's Action Party (PAP), the governing party of Singapore since 1959, and the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), the leading party of the Barisan Nasional coalition which governed Malaysia from 1955 to 2018 and has governed it since 2020. The two parties' relationship has impacted Malaysia–Singapore relations given the countries' geographical proximity and close historical ties.
The phrase "Malaysian Malaysia" was originally used in the mid-1960s as the rallying motto of the Malaysian Solidarity Convention, a coalition of political parties led by Lee Kuan Yew of the People's Action Party (PAP) that served as an opposition bloc to the governing Alliance Party.
Malaysian nationality law details the conditions by which a person is a citizen of Malaysia. The primary law governing nationality requirements is the Constitution of Malaysia, which came into force on 27 August 1957.
The term "British Malaya" loosely describes a set of states on the Malay Peninsula and the island of Singapore that were brought under British hegemony or control between the late 18th and the mid-20th century. Unlike the term "British India", which excludes the Indian princely states, British Malaya is often used to refer to the Federated and the Unfederated Malay States, which were British protectorates with their own local rulers, as well as the Straits Settlements, which were under the sovereignty and direct rule of the British Crown, after a period of control by the East India Company.
"Pendatang asing", "orang pendatang" or "pendatang" is a common Malay phrase used to refer to foreigners or immigrants; "pendatang asing" literally means "foreign comer" or "foreign immigrant". Although most frequently used to refer to foreign immigrants, especially illegal immigrants, pendatang asing has been used by some politicians in Malaysia as pejorative way of addressing non-Bumiputera Malaysians.
The history of the modern state of Singapore dates back to its founding in the early 19th century; however, evidence suggests that a significant trading settlement existed on the island in the 14th century. The last ruler of the Kingdom of Singapura, Parameswara, was expelled by the Majapahit or the Siamese before he founded Malacca. Singapore then came under the Malacca Sultanate and subsequently the Johor Sultanate. In 1819, British statesman Stamford Raffles negotiated a treaty whereby Johor would allow the British to locate a trading port on the island, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Crown colony of Singapore in 1867. Important reasons for the rise of Singapore were its nodal position at the tip of the Malay Peninsula flanked by the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the presence of a natural sheltered harbour, as well as its status as a free port.
Singapore, officially the State of Singapore, was one of the 14 states of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965. Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963 by the merger of the Federation of Malaya with the former British colonies of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. This marked the end of the 144-year British rule in Singapore which began with the founding of modern Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819. At the time of merger, it was the smallest state in the country by land area, but the largest by population.
Malay nationalism refers to the nationalism that focused overwhelmingly on the Malay anticolonial struggle, motivated by the nationalist ideal of creating a Bangsa Melayu. Its central objectives were the advancement and protection of Malayness: religion (Islam), language (Malay), and royalty. Such pre-occupation is a direct response to the European colonial presence and the influx of a foreign migrant population in Malaya since the mid-nineteenth century.
The State of Penang, one of the most developed and urbanised Malaysian states, is located at the nation's northwest coast along the Malacca Strait. Unlike most Malaysian states, the history of modern Penang was shaped by British colonialism, beginning with the acquisition of Penang Island from the Sultanate of Kedah by the British East India Company in 1786. Developed into a free port, the city state was subsequently governed as part of the Straits Settlements, together with Singapore and Malacca; the state capital, George Town, briefly became the capital of this political entity between 1826 and 1832. By the end of the 19th century, George Town prospered and became one of the major entrepôts in Southeast Asia.
The All-Malaya Council of Joint Action (AMCJA) was a coalition of political and civic organisations in Malaya formed to participate in the development of a constitution for post-war Malaya in preparation for independence and to oppose the Constitutional Proposals for Malaya which eventually formed the basis of the Federation of Malaya Agreement.
Peninsular Malaysia, historically known as Malaya, also known as West Malaysia or the "Malaysian Peninsula", is the western part of Malaysia that comprises the southern part of the Malay Peninsula on Mainland Southeast Asia and the nearby islands. Its area totals approximately 132,490 km2 (51,150 sq mi), which is nearly 40% of the total area of the country; the other 60% is in East Malaysia on the island of Borneo.
Heah Joo Seang was a Malayan politician, business leader, rubber magnate, philanthropist and especially a supporter of education. Malaysia, as it has since become, only existed after Joo Seang's death. His contributions span three distinct periods in the country's history: the British Malaya period, the Malayan Union period, and the Federation of Malaya period.
George Town, the capital city of the state of Penang, is the second largest city in Malaysia and the economic centre of the country's northern region. The history of George Town began with its establishment by Captain Francis Light of the British East India Company in 1786. Founded as a free port, George Town became the first British settlement in Southeast Asia and prospered in the 19th century as one of the vital British entrepôts within the region. It briefly became the capital of the Straits Settlements, a British crown colony which also consisted of Singapore and Malacca.
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