Peripatoides novaezealandiae

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Peripatoides novaezealandiae
Peripatoides novaezealandiae 150609625.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Onychophora
Family: Peripatopsidae
Genus: Peripatoides
Species:
P. novaezealandiae
Binomial name
Peripatoides novaezealandiae
(Hutton, 1876) [1]

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is an allozymatic (reproductively isolated) species of velvet worms in the Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex, [2] endemic to New Zealand. Other described species include P. aurorbis, P. kawekaensis, P. morgani and P. sympatrica. [3]

Contents

Description

Location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from P. novaezealandiae-complex. Schematic ventral sketch of the location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from P. novaezealandiae-complex.png
Location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from P. novaezealandiae-complex.
Location of characteristic orange papillae bulge relative to eye on P. novaezealandiae-complex. Fig. 2 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture - morphological and reproductive aspects.png
Location of characteristic orange papillae bulge relative to eye on P. novaezealandiae-complex.

As with all Onychophora, Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. has a long, worm-like body, a head, and an anal cone. [6] [7] The head has three pairs of modified limbs: the antennae, the jaws, and the oral papillae. [6] [7] Their skin is velvety in texture and the sticky slime projected from their oral papillae does not stick to it. [6] They respire via two rows of trachea on the dorsal surface, which alternate with the legs. [6]

All species in the P. novaezealandiae-complex have fifteen pairs of unjointed, hollow cone-like limbs called lobopods. [6] [2] This distinguishes them from the closely related P. suteri which has sixteen pairs of lobopods. [8] [9] Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex has three complete spinous pads and a fourth fragmented pad on the ventral side of the legs. [10] Individuals all have three distal papillae on the feet. [10] [2]

Colour varies from brownish red to purplish black, but there is usually a thin black dorsal stripe. [6] A bulge of orange-coloured papillae near the eyes is characteristic of the P. novaezealandiae-complex. [10]

Length varies from 2.5–5 cm. [2] Males can reach a weight of up to 200 mg while adult female weight varies more widely, with some specimens of over 800 mg. [11]

Morphologically, males can usually be distinguished from females by the presence of a pair of posterior orange papillae which mark the opening of the anal glands. [2] [11] These papillae appear before maturity, so cannot be used to identify sexually mature males. [11] Males in the P. novaezealandiae-complex do not have the pheromone-producing crural glands found in many other Onychophora, such as Euperipatoides rowelli . [12]

Newborns of P. novaezealandiae s. str. are pure white with slightly purple antennae. [6] [13] Other P. novaezealandiae-complex morphs are born with pigments, possibly differentiating them from P. novaezealandiae s. str. [10]

Distribution and habitat

Natural global range

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is endemic to New Zealand. [8]

New Zealand range

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is limited to Wellington, Wairarapa, and southern Hawke's Bay regions in places such as Miller reserve, Otari, Akatarawa, Waiohine, Carterton, and Pahiatua. [2]

Habitat preferences

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is usually found within or beneath rotting logs. [2] [11] Sufficient moisture is vital for all Onychophora as they cannot regulate water loss due to a lack of both a waxy cuticle and tracheal spiracles. [12] [8] [14]

Life cycle

As with all of P. novaezealandiae-complex, Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. use lecithotrophic viviparity to reproduce and supply nutrition to their young. [7] This means embryos are surrounded by egg membranes and derive nutrition from a yolk while inside the ovary. [7] Hatching and birth are simultaneous. [7]

Juveniles go through three stages: [10]

Peripatids grow by moulting the outer cuticle when it becomes too restrictive. [14] P. novaezealandiae s. str. is an iteroparous batch breeder, meaning that it produces young in discontinuous batches. [13]

Males of P. novaezealandiae s. str. reach sexual maturity between 40–60 mg body weight, while females reach sexual maturity between 80–95 mg body weight. [11] Females with embryos are usually between 114–508 mg but can be as large as 800 mg. [11] Prior to the development of the first embryos, female paired uteri are white and thin. [11] Subsequently, the uteri are thick-walled, yellow, and baggy for all mature females. [11]

Females can store sperm in spermathecae, [11] possibly for more than two years. [10] Dissections show that both males and females contain sperm in all months of the year. [11]

In some Onychophora, spermatophores (capsules containing sperm) from the male attach themselves to the integument of the females. [15] Sperm invade the haemolymph (body cavity), making their way to the reproductive tract. [15] No spermatophores or scars have been found on female P. novaezealandiae-complex, but sperm has been found within the haemolymph. [11] Evidence suggests sperm transfer in this species is dermal-haemocoelic (through skin into the body cavity), but this has yet to be confirmed. [11]

Diet and foraging

A harvestman (Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta) eating P. novaezealandiae. Subspecies Nuncia conjuncta conjuncta preying on Peripatoides novaezealandiae.jpg
A harvestman (Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta) eating P. novaezealandiae.
A cave weta (Miotopus diversus) eating P. novaezealandiae. Miotopus diversus feeding on the Peripatoides novaezealandiae.jpg
A cave wētā (Miotopus diversus) eating P. novaezealandiae.
P. novaezealandiae eating a Nanocambridgea gracilipes spider. Peripatoides novaezealandiae - Uwe Schneehagen - 433292266.jpeg
P. novaezealandiae eating a Nanocambridgea gracilipes spider.

Like others in their genus, the Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is a nocturnal predator. [6] [14]

Captive individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex have been sustained with flies. [6] An abundance of centipedes have been found in logs that also contain P. novaezealandiae s. str., suggesting a possible predator-prey relationship. [13]

Peripatids use their oral papillae to shoot out sticky slime which thickens upon contact with the air and covers prey in a strong, net-like structure. [6] [14] They approach and use their jaws to puncture the cuticle of the trapped animal, injecting digestive enzymes and sucking up the liquefied remains. [6] [14] [7]

Predators, parasites, and diseases

Globally there has been very little research on the ecology of Onychophora. [18] Several species, including spiders and beetles, have been found in rotting logs along with P. novaezealandiae s. str.. [13] It is unknown if these species are predators, prey, or perhaps either depending on the specific interaction. [13] Observations on iNaturalist have shown two species eating P. novaezealandiae s. str., a harvestman ( Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta ) and a cave wētā ( Miotopus diversus ).

External nematodes have been found behind the oral papillae of P. novaezealandiae s. str., but there is no evidence of parasitism. [13] Mites have also been found on the integument, but without evidence of any feeding. [13] Both relationships may be better characterised as phoresy, where species are transported by the peripatus without causing harm. [13]

No internal parasites or damage consistent with fungal infection have been found in P. novaezealandiae. [13]

Conservation status

As a whole, P. novaezealandiae-complex is classed as ‘not threatened’ according to the 2018 New Zealand Threat Classification System. [19] In part, this is because the allozymatic species have not all been described and little is known about their distribution. [20]

References

  1. "Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Hutton, 1876)". Global Biodiversity Information Facility . Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Trewick, Steven A. (1998). "Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 63 (3): 307–329. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x . ISSN   0024-4066.
  3. Trewick, S. A. (2000). "Mitochondrial DNA sequences support allozyme evidence for cryptic radiation of New Zealand Peripatoides (Onychophora)". Molecular Ecology. 9 (3): 269–281. Bibcode:2000MolEc...9..269T. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00873.x. ISSN   1365-294X. PMID   10736025. S2CID   8637591.
  4. Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Figs 3–5 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae'-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114.
  5. Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Fig. 2 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Hutton, F.W. (November 1876). "On Peripatus novæ-zealandiæ". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 18 (107): 361–369. doi:10.1080/00222937608682060.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mayer, Georg; Franke, Franziska Anni; Treffkorn, Sandra; Gross, Vladimir; de Sena Oliveira, Ivo (2015), Wanninger, Andreas (ed.), "Onychophora" , Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3, Vienna: Springer Vienna, pp. 53–98, doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4, ISBN   978-3-7091-1864-1
  8. 1 2 3 Gleeson, Dianne M. (January 1996). "Onychophora of New Zealand; past, present and future". New Zealand Entomologist. 19 (1): 51–55. Bibcode:1996NZEnt..19...51G. doi:10.1080/00779962.1996.9722023.
  9. Gleeson, D. M.; Ruberg, H. (2010). "Phylum Onychophora: velvet worms, peripatus.". In Gordon, D. P. (ed.). New Zealand inventory of biodiversity. Christchurch, N.Z: Canterbury University Press. pp. 36–39. ISBN   978-1-87725793-3.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7666500.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tutt, Karen; Daugherty, Charles H.; Gibbs, George W. (2002). "Differential life-history characteristics of male and female Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)". Journal of Zoology. 258 (2): 257–267. doi: 10.1017/S095283690200136X . ISSN   1469-7998.
  12. 1 2 Barclay, S. D.; Rowell, D. M.; Ash, J. E. (April 2000). "Pheromonally mediated colonization patterns in the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli (Onychophora)". Journal of Zoology. 250 (4): 437–446. doi:10.1017/s0952836900004027.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tutt, Karen (1997). The life history and reproductive cycle of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae).
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Hardie, R. (1975). "The riddle of Peripatus". Australian Natural History. 18 (5): 180–185. ISSN   0004-9840.
  15. 1 2 Manton, S. M. (18 February 1938). "Studies on the Onychophora, IV - The passage of spermatozoa into the ovary on Peripatopsis and the early developments of the ova". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 228 (556): 421–441. Bibcode:1938RSPTB.228..421M. doi:10.1098/rstb.1938.0001.
  16. Schneehagen, Uwe (24 July 2021). "Subspecies Nuncia conjuncta conjuncta". iNaturalist.
  17. Schneehagen, Uwe (24 January 2022). "New Zealand peripatus (Peripatoides novaezealandiae)". iNaturalist.
  18. Guerrero-Casado, José; Monge-Nájera, Julián (16 November 2022). "Bibliometrics of velvet worm (Onychophora) research: geographic and historical trends over 150 years, and recommendations for future work". Biologia. 78 (1): 109–117. Bibcode:2022Biolg..78..109G. doi:10.1007/s11756-022-01221-5.
  19. Trewick, S.; Hitchmough, R.; Rolfe, J.; Stringer, I. (2018). Conservation status of New Zealand Onychophora ('peripatus' or velvet worm), 2018 (PDF). New Zealand Department of Conservation.
  20. New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs. New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office. 2014. ISBN   9780478150094. OCLC   994631114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)