Peripatoides

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Peripatoides
Peripatoides 01.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Onychophora
Family: Peripatopsidae
Genus: Peripatoides
Pocock, 1894
Species
See text

Peripatoides is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae. [1] Velvet worms in this genus are found throughout New Zealand. Like all velvet worms, these animals are nocturnal predators that spit a sticky slime to trap their prey. [2] Unlike the species in the only other genus of velvet worms found in New Zealand, Ooperipatellus , which lay eggs (that is, are oviparous), the species in the genus Peripatoides are live-bearing (ovoviviparous). [3]

Contents

Description

The number of legs in this genus varies among species but is generally stable within species. Most species have 15 pairs of legs, but one species ( Peripatoides suteri ) has 16 leg pairs instead. [4] Velvet worms in this genus range from 5 mm to 120 mm in length. [5]

Velvet worms in this genus exhibit two traits that are especially unusual in the family Peripatopsidae. First, velvet worms in this genus lack crural glands and crural papillae, which are present in most peripatopsid genera. Second, the anal glands in this genus open laterally on the anal segment. In most peripatopsid genera, these glands open between the anus and the genital opening. [6] [7]

Taxonomy

Relying on morphology alone, the taxonomy of the genus Peripatoides distinguished between three species: Peripatoides novaezealandiae , with 15 pairs of legs and (usually) three distal foot papillae, Peripatoides suteri, with 16 leg pairs and (usually) four distal foot papillae, and Peripatoides indigo , with 15 leg pairs and five distal foot papillae. [3] [6] Phylogenetic analysis using molecular data, however, has since found P. novaezealandiae (as traditionally understood based on morphology) to be a species complex including several distinct species. [8] [3] This analysis finds both P. suteri and P. indigo nested among several other clades within the P. novaezealandiae species complex in a phylogenetic tree. [3]

In 1998, five reproductively isolated species in northern New Zealand, each with 15 leg pairs, were described using molecular data. [8] These five species, P. aurorbis , P. kawekaensis, P. morgani , P. sympatrica , and P. novaezealandiae (sensu stricto, that is, as more narrowly defined), have no morphological characters that distinguish them, but they are genetically differentiated. [9] [8] Some authorities considered P. novaezealandiae and the cryptic species to be nomina dubia , [10] but later recognized the species as valid when the holotype specimens records at Te Papa Tongarewa Museum were linked to the descriptions. [11] [1] [12] In 2024, three additional species in this genus from the South Island of New Zealand were described based on molecular evidence ( P. otepoti , P. taitonga , and P. waikaia ), [3] but some authorities consider these three to be nomina nuda rather than valid species. [13]

Species

The genus Peripatoides consists of the following species: [10] [3]

Geographic Distribution and Habitat

Natural global range

All species in the genus Peripatoides are endemic to New Zealand. [14]

Habitat preferences

Onychophora (including species within the genus Peripatoides) are usually found within or beneath rotting logs, [15] [16] [17] though individuals have occasionally been discovered among leaf litter and beneath objects such as stones and rocks and in crevasses. [18] Sufficient moisture is vital for all Onychophora as they cannot regulate water loss due to a lack of both a waxy cuticle and tracheal spiracles. [19] [14] [20]

In 1989, several thousand of the P. otepoti were found on a property in Dunedin, living in an old kitchen dump among dry tins cans and sheets of roofing iron, and in a separate pile of bricks. [21] The existence of the P. otepoti in a wide range of elevations forest, scrub and tussock, [3] suggests that prey availability and moisture are more important than vegetation type when determining habitat suitability. [16]

Reproduction

This genus exhibits lecithotrophic ovoviviparity; that is, mothers in this genus produce and retain yolky eggs in their uteri. [22] The eggs are fertilized internally, and babies develop inside their mother until large enough to be born, in batches of 4–6, as colourless miniatures of the parents. [2] These live-bearing Peripatoides have dermal-haemocoelic sperm transfer – which means sperm dissolve holes in the skin of the female to enter the body (haemolymph) anywhere on the body wall of the female. [17]

Hutton [18] originally claimed that individuals of Peripatoides novaezealandiae are hermaphroditic, possibly due to confusion regarding sperm storage sacs found within the female. [20] This has since been contested, [16] and more recent literature clearly designates individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex as male or female. [23] [17] Sex can be identified in some morphs as young as two months after birth, but sexual differentiation is complete for all members of the P. novaezealandiae-complex by five months. [23]

Juveniles go through three stages: [23]

Peripatids grow by moulting the outer cuticle when it becomes too restrictive.

Diet / Prey / Predators

Diet and foraging

Like others in their family, Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex is a nocturnal predator. [18] [20]

Captive individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex have been sustained with flies. [18] An abundance of centipedes, ants, mites, and amphipods have been found in logs that also contain P. novaezealandiae, suggesting a possible predator-prey relationship. [24]

Peripatids use their oral papillae to shoot out sticky slime which thickens upon contact with the air and covers prey in a strong, net-like structure. [18] [20] They approach and use their jaws to puncture the cuticle of the trapped animal, injecting digestive enzymes and sucking up the liquefied remains. [18] [20] [25]

Other information

Conservation status

Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex is classed as ‘not threatened’ according to the 2018 New Zealand Threat Classification System. [26] In part, this is because the allozymatic species have not all been described and little is known about their distribution. [27]

Scientific notes

Onychophora, including P. novaezealandiae-complex, are very difficult to rear in captivity. [24] A German study of P. novaezealandiae-complex had some success keeping specimens alive long enough to birth young. [23]

There is currently no known way to age individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex, which makes it very difficult to compare individuals and fully understand their life history. [24]

Cultural connections

The te reo Māori name for velvet worms is ngaokeoke which comes from the word ‘ngaoki’, to crawl. [28]

When considering a new roading project, the presence of P. otepoti in Caversham Valley gave the location high conservation value. [11] The New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA) worked with the Department of Conservation, Dunedin City Council and Otago University to translocate any Peripatus impacted by the project, along with ongoing monitoring, management, and habitat enhancement. [11] The discovery of ngaokeoke (P. novaezealandiae-complex) on their farm inspired Taranaki farming couple Damien and Jane Roper to form a partnership with the regional council to legally protect their 2.5 ha of native bush. [29]

Related Research Articles

Opisthopatus roseus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. As traditionally defined, this species is rose pink with 18 pairs of legs. Known as the pink velvet worm, it is found only in the Weza Forest, a Mistbelt Forest in South Africa.

<i>Peripatoides indigo</i> Species of velvet worm

Peripatoides indigo, the indigo velvet worm, is a velvet worm of the family Peripatopsidae. The Māori name for the velvet worm is ngaokeoke, from the Māori word 'ngaoki', to crawl.

<i>Peripatoides suteri</i> Species of velvet worm

Peripatoides suteri is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae. Like all other species in the genus Peripatoides, this species is ovoviviparous and endemic to New Zealand. This species is notable for featuring 16 pairs of legs, unlike all other species of Peripatoides, which have only 15 leg pairs. This species has more legs than any other species of velvet worm found in New Zealand.

<i>Peripatopsis</i> Genus of velvet worms

Peripatopsis is a genus of velvet worms in the Peripatopsidae family. These velvet worms are found in the KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. This genus was proposed by the British zoologist Reginald I. Pocock in 1894 with Peripatopsis capensis designated as the type species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peripatopsidae</span> Family of invertebrate animals

Peripatopsidae is one of the two living velvet worm families. This family includes more than 140 described species distributed among 41 genera, but some authorities deem only 131 of these species to be valid. The French zoologist Eugène Louis Bouvier proposed this family in 1905 with Peripatopsis as the type genus.

Planipapillus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae, whose species are found in eastern Victoria and southeastern New South Wales, Australia. They are unique in that the males of this genus may bear patches of reduced papillae on the head, posterior to the eyes; the generic name refers to this fact, and likewise they have been vernacularly referred to as lawn-headed onychophorans. All species in this genus are oviparous and have 15 pairs of legs.

<i>Peripatoides novaezealandiae</i> Species of velvet worms

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is an allozymatic species of velvet worms in the Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex, endemic to New Zealand. Other described species include P. aurorbis, P. kawekaensis, P. morgani and P. sympatrica.

<i>Occiperipatoides</i> Genus and species of velvet worm

Occiperipatoides is a monospecific genus of velvet worm containing the single species Occiperipatoides gilesii. This genus is ovoviviparous and found in Western Australia. The genus is part of the ancient phylum Onychophora that contains soft-bodied, many-legged relatives of arthropods known commonly as velvet worms.

Phallocephale is a monospecific genus of ovoviviparous velvet worm containing the single species Phallocephale tallagandensis. Males are distinguished by the presence of an eversible knoblike structure on the head, whereas females instead have a depression on their head. This species has 15 pairs of legs in both sexes. The type locality of this species is Tallaganda National Park, New South Wales, Australia. This species exhibits lecithotrophic ovoviviparity; that is, mothers in this species retain yolky eggs in their uteri.

Nodocapitus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae. All species in this genus have 15 pairs of legs in both sexes. N. formosus is found in Queensland, Australia, N. inornatus is found in New South Wales, and N. barryi is found in both of these states. In each species, the males are distinguished by enlarged papillae on the head, between the antennae.

<i>Ooperipatellus</i> Genus of velvet worms

Ooperipatellus is a genus of Australian and New Zealand velvet worms in the Peripatopsidae family. Species in this genus are oviparous. This genus was proposed by Hilke Ruhberg in 1985, with Ooperipatellus insignis designed at the type species. This genus is notable as the only one in which velvet worms have no more than 14 pairs of legs:

Metaperipatus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae that contains two species found in Chile, including Metaperipatus inae. This genus was created by the American zoologist Austin Hobart Clark in 1913 to contain the type species, M. blainvillei. Authorities believe M. blainvillei is a species complex, however, and some consider M. blainvillei a nomen dubium.

Paraperipatus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae. This genus exhibits matrotrophic viviparity, that is, mothers in this genus retain eggs in their uteri and supply nourishment to their embryos, but without any placenta. Species in this genus are found in New Guinea and the surrounding islands, including the Maluku achipelago.

Peripatoides kawekaensis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. This species is ovoviviparous and has 15 pairs of legs. The type locality is in New Zealand's North Island.

Opisthopatus laevis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. This species has 16 pairs of legs. The type locality is in South Africa. The validity of this species is uncertain: Some authorities consider O. laevis invalid even as a subspecies of O. cinctipes, a similar species also found in South Africa, but other authorities recognize O. laevis as a separate species, citing the significant distance (570 km) between the type localities of these two species.

Nodocapitus inornatus is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae. The type locality of this species is Gibralter Range National Park, New South Wales, Australia. This species has 15 pairs of legs in both sexes. The males are distinguished by enlarged papillae on the head, between the antennae.

<i>Ooperipatellus nanus</i> Species of velvet worm

Ooperipatellus nanus is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae. This species is endemic to New Zealand and is found in the South Island.

Peripatopsis balfouri is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. This species has 18 pairs of clawed legs. Also known as the blue velvet worm, this species ranges from 9 mm to 22 mm in length. The type locality is in South Africa.

Peripatopsis sedgwicki is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. Also known as the Tsitsikamma velvet worm, this species has a narrow geographic distribution in South Africa but is especially abundant in the indigenous forest of the Tsitsikamma mountains. Recent phylogenetic analysis using molecular data finds that Peripatopsis sedgwicki as traditionally understood based on morphology is a species complex that contains four different species: P. sedgwicki s.s., P. orientalis, P. collarium, and P. margaritarius.

<i>Peripatopsis alba</i> Species of velvet worm

Peripatopsis alba, the white cave velvet worm, is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae. This species is notable as one of only two species of velvet worm known to be troglobitic; the only other velvet worm known to be a troglobiont is Speleoperipatus spelaeus. The white cave velvet worm is rare and limited to one cave system on Table Mountain in South Africa.

References

  1. 1 2 Oliveira, Ivo de Sena (2023-11-16). "An updated world checklist of velvet worms (Onychophora) with notes on nomenclature and status of names". ZooKeys (1184): 133–260. Bibcode:2023ZooK.1184..133O. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.1184.107286 . ISSN   1313-2970. PMC   10680090 . PMID   38023768.
  2. 1 2 Trewick, Steven (2019). Wild Life New Zealand. New Zealand: Hand-in-Hand Press. ISBN   978-0-473-48320-3.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Trewick, Steven A.; Koot, Emily M.; Morgan-Richards, Mary (2024). "Ngāokeoke Aotearoa: The Peripatoides Onychophora of New Zealand". Insects. 15 (4): 248. doi: 10.3390/insects15040248 . ISSN   2075-4450. PMC   11050097 . PMID   38667378.
  4. ↑ Ruhberg, Hilke (1985). Die Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) : Systematik, Ökologie, Chorologie und phylogenetische Aspekte (in German). Stuttgart: E. Schweizerbart. pp. 135–142. ISBN   3-510-55023-4. OCLC   14872354.
  5. ↑ Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research. "Peripatus (Onchyphora)".
  6. 1 2 Tait, N.N.; Briscoe, D.A. (1995-05-01). "Genetic differentiation within New Zealand Onychophora and their relationships to the Australian fauna". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 114 (1): 103–113 [104]. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1995.tb00115.x. ISSN   0024-4082.
  7. ↑ Reid, A. L. (1996). "Review of the Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) in Australia, with comments on peripatopsid relationships". Invertebrate Systematics. 10 (4): 663–936 [685, 687, 932–935]. doi:10.1071/it9960663. ISSN   1447-2600.
  8. 1 2 3 Trewick, Steven A. (1998). "Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 63 (3): 307–329. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x . ISSN   0024-4066.
  9. ↑ Trewick, S. A. (2000). "Mitochondrial DNA sequences support allozyme evidence for cryptic radiation of New Zealand Peripatoides (Onychophora)". Molecular Ecology. 9 (3): 269–281. Bibcode:2000MolEc...9..269T. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00873.x. ISSN   1365-294X. PMID   10736025. S2CID   8637591.
  10. 1 2 Oliveira, I. S.; Read, V. M. S. J.; Mayer, G. (2012). "A world checklist of Onychophora (velvet worms), with notes on nomenclature and status of names". ZooKeys (211): 1–70. Bibcode:2012ZooK..211....1O. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.211.3463 . PMC   3426840 . PMID   22930648 . Retrieved 16 July 2016.
  11. 1 2 3 New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs. New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office. 2014. ISBN   9780478150094. OCLC   994631114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  12. ↑ "Loading... | Collections Online - Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa". collections.tepapa.govt.nz. Retrieved 2024-07-22.
  13. ↑ Oliveira, I.; Hering, L. & Mayer, G. "Updated Onychophora checklist". Onychophora Website. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  14. 1 2 Gleeson, Dianne M. (January 1996). "Onychophora of New Zealand; past, present and future". New Zealand Entomologist. 19 (1): 51–55. Bibcode:1996NZEnt..19...51G. doi:10.1080/00779962.1996.9722023.
  15. ↑ Trewick, Steven A. (1998). "Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 63 (3): 307–329. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x . ISSN   0024-4066.
  16. 1 2 3 Trewick, S. A. (January 1999). "Molecular diversity of Dunedin peripatus (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 26 (4): 381–393. doi:10.1080/03014223.1999.9518201.
  17. 1 2 3 Tutt, Karen; Daugherty, Charles H.; Gibbs, George W. (2002). "Differential life-history characteristics of male and female Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)". Journal of Zoology. 258 (2): 257–267. doi: 10.1017/S095283690200136X . ISSN   1469-7998.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hutton, F.W. (November 1876). "On Peripatus novæ-zealandiæ". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 18 (107): 361–369. doi:10.1080/00222937608682060.
  19. ↑ Barclay, S. D.; Rowell, D. M.; Ash, J. E. (April 2000). "Pheromonally mediated colonization patterns in the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli (Onychophora)". Journal of Zoology. 250 (4): 437–446. doi:10.1017/s0952836900004027.
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 Hardie, R. (1975). "The riddle of Peripatus". Australian Natural History. 18 (5): 180–185. ISSN   0004-9840.
  21. ↑ Harris, A.C. (December 1991). "A large aggregation of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Hutton, 1876) (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 21 (4): 405–406. Bibcode:1991JRSNZ..21..405H. doi:10.1080/03036758.1991.10420836.
  22. ↑ Mayer, Georg; Franke, Franziska Anni; Treffkorn, Sandra; Gross, Vladimir; de Sena Oliveira, Ivo (2015), Wanninger, Andreas (ed.), "Onychophora", Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3, Vienna: Springer Vienna, pp. 53–98, doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4, ISBN   978-3-7091-1864-1 , retrieved 2023-02-16
  23. 1 2 3 4 Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114. doi:10.5281/zenodo.7666500.
  24. 1 2 3 Tutt, Karen (1997). The life history and reproductive cycle of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae).
  25. ↑ Mayer, Georg; Franke, Franziska Anni; Treffkorn, Sandra; Gross, Vladimir; de Sena Oliveira, Ivo (2015), Wanninger, Andreas (ed.), "Onychophora", Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3, Vienna: Springer Vienna, pp. 53–98, doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4, ISBN   978-3-7091-1864-1
  26. ↑ Trewick, S.; Hitchmough, R.; Rolfe, J.; Stringer, I. (2018). Conservation status of New Zealand Onychophora ('peripatus' or velvet worm), 2018 (PDF). New Zealand Department of Conservation.
  27. ↑ New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs. New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office. 2014. ISBN   9780478150094. OCLC   994631114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  28. ↑ Ryan, P. (2007-09-24). "Story: Peripatus". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved March 17, 2024.
  29. ↑ Nolly, R. (2022-06-16). "Farming journey leads to learning te reo Maori". Farmers Weekly. Retrieved March 17, 2024.

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