Pioneer species

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Pioneer species of plant growing in cracks on a solidified recently erupted lava flow in Hawaii Plants Colonizing a Lava Flow on Hawaii.jpg
Pioneer species of plant growing in cracks on a solidified recently erupted lava flow in Hawaii
Pioneer plants growing on solidified lava on Pico, Azores, avoiding local laurisilva competition Ilha do Pico P6030599 (35239701531).jpg
Pioneer plants growing on solidified lava on Pico, Azores, avoiding local laurisilva competition

Pioneer species are resilient species that are the first to colonize barren environments, or to repopulate disrupted biodiverse steady-state ecosystems as part of ecological succession. A number of kinds of events can create good conditions for pioneers, including disruption by natural disasters, such as wildfire, flood, mudslide, lava flow or a climate-related extinction event [1] or by anthropogenic habitat destruction, such as through land clearance for agriculture or construction or industrial damage. Pioneer species play an important role in creating soil in primary succession, and stabilizing soil and nutrients in secondary succession. [2]

Contents

For humans, because pioneer species quickly occupy disrupted spaces they are sometimes treated as weeds or nuisance wildlife, such as the common dandelion or stinging nettle. [3] [2] Even though humans have mixed relationships with these plants, these species tend to help improve the ecosystem because they can break up compacted soils and accumulate nutrients that help with a transition back to a more mature ecosystem. [4] [5] [2] In human managed ecological restoration or agroforestry, trees and herbaceous pioneers can be used to restore soil qualities and provide shelter for slower growing or more demanding plants. [5] [6] [7] Some systems use introduced species to restore the ecosystem, [2] or for environmental remediation. [8] The durability of pioneer species can also make them potential invasive species. [9] [2] [10]

Pioneer flora

Some lichens grow on rocks without soil, so may be among the first of life forms, and break down the rocks into soil for plants. [11] Since some uninhabited land may have thin, poor quality soils with few nutrients, pioneer species are often hardy plants with adaptations such as long roots, root nodes containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and leaves that employ transpiration. Note that they are often photosynthetic plants, as no other source of energy (such as other species) except light energy is often available in the early stages of succession, thus making it less likely for a pioneer species to be non-photosynthetic.

The plants that are often pioneer species also tend to be wind-pollinated rather than insect-pollinated, as insects are unlikely to be present in the usually barren conditions in which pioneer species grow; however, pioneer species tend to reproduce asexually altogether, as the extreme or barren conditions present make it more favourable to reproduce asexually in order to increase reproductive success rather than invest energy into sexual reproduction. Pioneer species will eventually die, create plant litter, and break down as "leaf mold" after some time, making new soil for secondary succession (see below), and releasing nutrients for small fish and aquatic plants in adjacent bodies of water. [12]

Some examples of pioneering plant species:

Pioneer fauna

On land

The diagram above shows how pioneer species lead to soil formation and allow less rugged fauna to grow in the area. .mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}} Bare rock Weathering allows hardy pioneer species to grow on the rocks. Decomposition of pioneer species provides organic material to make soil. Small annual plants are able to grow on the soil. As the soil layer grows plants such as trees are able to colonize the area. Pioneer species colonization leading to primary sucession.svg
The diagram above shows how pioneer species lead to soil formation and allow less rugged fauna to grow in the area.
  1. Bare rock
  2. Weathering allows hardy pioneer species to grow on the rocks.
  3. Decomposition of pioneer species provides organic material to make soil.
  4. Small annual plants are able to grow on the soil.
  5. As the soil layer grows plants such as trees are able to colonize the area.

The pioneering fauna will colonize an area only after flora and fungi have inhabited the area. Soil fauna, ranging from microscopic protists to larger invertebrates, have a role in soil formation and nutrient cycling. Bacteria and fungi are the most important groups in the breakdown of organic detritus left by primary producing plants such as skeletal soil, moss and algae. Soil invertebrates enhance fungal activity by breaking down detritus. As soil develops, earthworms and ants alter soil characteristics. Worm burrows aerate soil and ant hills alter sediment particle size dispersal, altering soil character profoundly.

Though vertebrates in general would not be considered pioneer species, there are exceptions. Natterjack toads are specialists in open, sparsely vegetated habitats which may be at an early seral stage. [15] Wide-ranging generalists visit early succession stage habitats, but are not obligate species of those habitats because they use a mosaic of different habitats.

Vertebrates can affect early seral stages. Herbivores may alter plant growth. Fossorial mammals could alter soil and plant community development. In a profound example, a seabird colony transfers considerable nitrogen into infertile soils, thereby altering plant growth. A keystone species may facilitate the introduction of pioneer species by creating new niches. For example, beavers may flood an area, allowing new species to immigrate. [16]

Under water

The concept of ecologic succession also applies to underwater habitats. If a space becomes newly available in a reef surrounding, haplosclerid and calcareous sponges are the first animals to initially occur in this environment in greater numbers than other species. These types of sponges grow faster and have a shorter life-span than the species which follow them in this habitat. [17]

Secondary succession and pioneer species

Centaurea maculosa, an example of pioneer species Centaurea maculosa.jpg
Centaurea maculosa , an example of pioneer species

The term pioneer species is also used to refer to the first species, usually plants, to return to an area after disturbance as part of the process of secondary succession. Disturbances may include floods, tornadoes, forest fires, deforestation, or clearing by other means. [18]

Pioneer species tend to be fast-growing, shade-intolerant, and tend to reproduce large numbers of offspring quickly. The seeds of pioneer species can sometimes remain viable for years or decades in the soil seed bank and often are triggered to sprout by disturbance. [19] Mycorrhizal fungi have a powerful influence on the growth of pioneer species. [20]

Some examples of the plants in such areas include:[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem</span> Community of living organisms together with the nonliving components of their environment

An ecosystem is a system that environments and their organisms form through their interaction. The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epiphyte</span> Non-parasitic surface organism that grows upon another plant but is not nourished by it

An epiphyte is a plant or plant-like organism that grows on the surface of another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphytes grow are called phorophytes. Epiphytes take part in nutrient cycles and add to both the diversity and biomass of the ecosystem in which they occur, like any other organism. They are an important source of food for many species. Typically, the older parts of a plant will have more epiphytes growing on them. Epiphytes differ from parasites in that they grow on other plants for physical support and do not necessarily affect the host negatively. An organism that grows on another organism that is not a plant may be called an epibiont. Epiphytes are usually found in the temperate zone or in the tropics. Epiphyte species make good houseplants due to their minimal water and soil requirements. Epiphytes provide a rich and diverse habitat for other organisms including animals, fungi, bacteria, and myxomycetes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grassland</span> Area with vegetation dominated by grasses

A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological succession</span> Process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological community over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow</span> Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants

A meadow is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland for the production of hay, fodder, or livestock. Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of species native to the region, with only limited human intervention.

<i>Bromus tectorum</i> Species of grass

Bromus tectorum, known as downy brome, drooping brome or cheatgrass, is a winter annual grass native to Europe, southwestern Asia, and northern Africa, but has become invasive in many other areas. It now is present in most of Europe, southern Russia, Japan, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, Greenland, North America and western Central Asia. In the eastern US B. tectorum is common along roadsides and as a crop weed, but usually does not dominate an ecosystem. It has become a dominant species in the Intermountain West and parts of Canada, and displays especially invasive behavior in the sagebrush steppe ecosystems where it has been listed as noxious weed. B. tectorum often enters the site in an area that has been disturbed, and then quickly expands into the surrounding area through its rapid growth and prolific seed production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelp forest</span> Underwater areas highly dense with kelp

Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat fragmentation</span> Discontinuities in an organisms environment causing population fragmentation.

Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment, and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary forest</span> Forest or woodland area which has re-grown after a timber harvest

A secondary forest is a forest or woodland area which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-caused disturbances, such as timber harvest or agriculture clearing, or equivalently disruptive natural phenomena. It is distinguished from an old-growth forest, which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex early seral forest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forest regrowing after natural disturbances such as fire, insect infestation, or windthrow because the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. Secondary forests are notably different from primary forests in their composition and biodiversity; however, they may still be helpful in providing habitat for native species, preserving watersheds, and restoring connectivity between ecosystems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primary succession</span> Gradual growth and change of an ecosystem on new substrate

Primary succession is the beginning step of ecological succession where species known as pioneer species colonize an uninhabited site, which usually occurs in an environment devoid of vegetation and other organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire ecology</span> Study of fire in ecosystems

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary succession</span> Redevelopment of an encology after an event that changes it radically

Secondary succession is the secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event that reduces an already established ecosystem to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. Many factors can affect secondary succession, such as trophic interaction, initial composition, and competition-colonization trade-offs. The factors that control the increase in abundance of a species during succession may be determined mainly by seed production and dispersal, micro climate; landscape structure ; bulk density, pH, and soil texture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">River ecosystem</span> Type of aquatic ecosystem with flowing freshwater

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prairie restoration</span> Conservation efforts focused on prairie lands

Prairie restoration is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural, commercial, or residential development. The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temperate deciduous forest</span> Deciduous forest in the temperate regions

Temperate deciduous or temperate broad-leaf forests are a variety of temperate forest 'dominated' by deciduous trees that lose their leaves each winter. They represent one of Earth's major biomes, making up 9.69% of global land area. These forests are found in areas with distinct seasonal variation that cycle through warm, moist summers, cold winters, and moderate fall and spring seasons. They are most commonly found in the Northern Hemisphere, with particularly large regions in eastern North America, East Asia, and a large portion of Europe, though smaller regions of temperate deciduous forests are also located in South America. Examples of trees typically growing in the Northern Hemisphere's deciduous forests include oak, maple, basswood, beech and elm, while in the Southern Hemisphere, trees of the genus Nothofagus dominate this type of forest. Temperate deciduous forests provide several unique ecosystem services, including habitats for diverse wildlife, and they face a set of natural and human-induced disturbances that regularly alter their structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brackish marsh</span> Marsh with brackish level of salinity

Brackish marshes develop from salt marshes where a significant freshwater influx dilutes the seawater to brackish levels of salinity. This commonly happens upstream from salt marshes by estuaries of coastal rivers or near the mouths of coastal rivers with heavy freshwater discharges in the conditions of low tidal ranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant ecology</span> The study of effect of the environment on the abundance and distribution of plants

Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology that studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. Examples of these are the distribution of temperate deciduous forests in North America, the effects of drought or flooding upon plant survival, and competition among desert plants for water, or effects of herds of grazing animals upon the composition of grasslands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant litter</span> Dead plant material that has fallen to the ground

Plant litter is dead plant material that have fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead organic material and its constituent nutrients are added to the top layer of soil, commonly known as the litter layer or O horizon. Litter is an important factor in ecosystem dynamics, as it is indicative of ecological productivity and may be useful in predicting regional nutrient cycling and soil fertility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Riparian-zone restoration</span> Ecological restoration of river banks and floodplains

Riparian-zone restoration is the ecological restoration of riparian-zonehabitats of streams, rivers, springs, lakes, floodplains, and other hydrologic ecologies. A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen terrestrial biomes of the earth; the habitats of plant and animal communities along the margins and river banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by aquatic plants and animals that favor them. Riparian zones are significant in ecology, environmental management, and civil engineering because of their role in soil conservation, their habitat biodiversity, and the influence they have on fauna and aquatic ecosystems, including grassland, woodland, wetland or sub-surface features such as water tables. In some regions the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, or riparian strip are used to characterize a riparian zone.

In ecology regeneration is the ability of an ecosystem – specifically, the environment and its living population – to renew and recover from damage. It is a kind of biological regeneration.

References

  1. ↑ Duram, Leslie A. (2010). Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food. ABC-CLIO. p. 48. ISBN   9780313359637.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Dalling, J. W. (2008-01-01), "Pioneer Species", in Fath, Brian (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 181–184, ISBN   978-0-444-64130-4 , retrieved 2024-04-13
  3. ↑ "Taraxacum officinale". www.fs.usda.gov. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  4. ↑ Cacace, Claudio; García-Gil, Juan C.; Cocozza, Claudio; De Mastro, Francesco; Brunetti, Gennaro; Traversa, Andreina (2022-11-03). "Effects of different pioneer and exotic species on the changes of degraded soils". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 18548. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1218548C. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-23265-y. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   9633587 . PMID   36329111.
  5. 1 2 Steinfeld, Jonas P.; Miatton, Massimiliano; Creamer, Rachel E.; Ehbrecht, Martin; Valencia, Vivian; Ballester, Maria Victoria Ramos; Bianchi, Felix J. J. A. (2024-03-01). "Identifying agroforestry characteristics for enhanced nutrient cycling potential in Brazil". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 362: 108828. Bibcode:2024AgEE..36208828S. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2023.108828 . ISSN   0167-8809.
  6. ↑ Swinfield, Tom; Afriandi, Roki; Antoni, Ferry; Harrison, Rhett D. (2016-12-01). "Accelerating tropical forest restoration through the selective removal of pioneer species". Forest Ecology and Management. 381: 209–216. Bibcode:2016ForEM.381..209S. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.09.020. ISSN   0378-1127.
  7. ↑ Cortines, Erika; Valcarcel, Ricardo (October 2009). "Influence of pioneer-species combinations on restoration of disturbed ecosystems in the Atlantic Forest, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". Revista Árvore. 33 (5): 927–936. doi:10.1590/S0100-67622009000500015. ISSN   0100-6762.
  8. ↑ Wu, Jiamei; Zhang, Chenxu; Yang, Huifen; Chen, Pan; Cao, Jian (January 2023). "Combined Remediation Effects of Pioneer Plants and Solid Waste towards Cd- and As-Contaminated Farmland Soil". Applied Sciences. 13 (9): 5695. doi: 10.3390/app13095695 . ISSN   2076-3417.
  9. ↑ Swinfield, Tom; Afriandi, Roki; Antoni, Ferry; Harrison, Rhett D. (2016-12-01). "Accelerating tropical forest restoration through the selective removal of pioneer species". Forest Ecology and Management. 381: 209–216. Bibcode:2016ForEM.381..209S. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.09.020. ISSN   0378-1127.
  10. ↑ Seidler, Reinmar (2024-01-01), "Biodiversity in Anthropogenically Altered Forests", in Scheiner, Samuel M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Third Edition), Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 80–97, ISBN   978-0-323-98434-8 , retrieved 2024-04-13
  11. ↑ Sharnoff, Sylvia; Sharnoff, Stephen. "Lichen Biology and the Environment". Lichens of North America.
  12. ↑ Walker, Lawrence R.; Moral, Roger del (2003-02-13). Primary Succession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521529549.
  13. ↑ Amazing Lava Products and Forms, U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
  14. ↑ "Surtsey - Colonization of the land".
  15. ↑ Faucher, Leslie; Hénocq, Laura; Vanappelghem, Cédric; Roundel, Stephanie; Tocqueville, Robin; Galina, Sophie; Godé, Cécile; Jaquiéry, Julie; Arnaud, Jean-Francois (2017-09-01). "When new human-modified habitats favor the expansion of an amphibian pioneer species: Evolutionary history of the natterjack toad (Bubo calamity) in a coal basin". Molecular Ecology. 26 (17): 4434–4451. Bibcode:2017MolEc..26.4434F. doi:10.1111/mec.14229. hdl: 20.500.12210/34525 . ISSN   1365-294X. PMID   28667796. S2CID   25656968.[ permanent dead link ]
  16. ↑ Wall work, John Anthony (1970). Ecology of Soil Animals. McGowan-Hill. ISBN   978-0070941250.
  17. ↑ J. Vicente, M. A. Timmers, M. K. Webb et. al (2022) Ecological succession of the sponge cryptofauna in Hawaiian reefs add new insights to detritus production by pioneering species.Scientific Reports, 20452322, 9/5/2022, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 doi:10.1038/s41598-022-18856-8
  18. ↑ Ricklefs, Robert E.; Relyea, Rick; Richter, Christoph F. (2014-07-20). Ecology: The Economy of Nature (Seventh edition, Canadian ed.). New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. ISBN   9781464154249. OCLC   961903099.
  19. ↑ Dalling, James W.; Brown, Thomas A. (2009). "Long-Term Persistence of Pioneer Species in Tropical Rain Forest Soil Seed Banks". The American Naturalist. 173 (4): 531–535. doi:10.1086/597221. PMID   19228112. S2CID   11269697.
  20. ↑ Zangaro, W; Nisizaki, S.M.A; Domingos, J.C.B; Nakano, A.M. (2003). "Mycorrhizal Response and Successional Status in 80 Woody Species from South Brazil". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 19 (3): 315–324. doi:10.1017/S0266467403003341. S2CID   86302550.
  21. ↑ Knox, Kirsten J. E.; Morrison, David A. (2005-06-01). "Effects of inter-fire intervals on the reproductive output of resprouters and obligate seeders in the Proteaceae". Austral Ecology. 30 (4): 407–413. Bibcode:2005AusEc..30..407K. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2005.01482.x. ISSN   1442-9993.
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