Pyramid of Senusret III

Pyramid of Senusret III
The Pyramid in 2022
Interactive map of Pyramid of Senusret III
29°49′8″N31°13′32″E / 29.81889°N 31.22556°E / 29.81889; 31.22556
Owner	Senusret III
Ancient name	Qbḥ Sn-wsr-t Qebeh Sen-user-et "Senusret is cool" or "cool place of Senusret" [ citation needed ]
Constructed	Twelfth Dynasty
Type	True pyramid (now ruined)
Material	Mudbrick (core) Tura limestone (casing)
Height	78 m (256 ft)
Base	105 m (344 ft)
Volume	288,488 m3 (10,187,900 cu ft)
Slope	56° 18' 35"

The pyramid of Senusret III ( Lepsius XLVII) is an ancient Egyptian pyramid located at Dahshur and built for pharaoh Senusret III of the 12th Dynasty.

The pyramid is the northernmost among those of Dahshur, and stands around 1.5 km northeast of Sneferu's Red Pyramid. It was erected on leveled ground and composed of a mudbricks core covered with a casing of white Tura limestone blocks resting on foundations. It was first excavated in 1894 by the French Egyptologist Jacques de Morgan, who managed to reach the burial chamber after discovering a tunnel dug by ancient tomb robbers. ^[1] A more recent campaign was led by Dieter Arnold during the 1990s.

Pyramid complex

A pyramid corridor of Senusret III's tomb

Map of the complex

The original project included the main pyramid along with a northern chapel and a small eastern mortuary temple, all surrounded by an enclosure wall. Outside this enclosure were seven tombs belonging to Senusret's queens and princesses, and the whole complex was again surrounded by an outer wall; this wall was enlarged during the works in order to accommodate a large temple on the southern side and a causeway. ^[1] The remains of six sacred barques were excavated outside the outer enclosure on the southern side. ^[2]

The now-demolished eastern temple was very small in size, perhaps a sign of the decline of the traditional funerary cult, as Arnold suggested. On the remaining reliefs were depicted conventional scenes of offerings to the enthroned Senusret III. The southern temple was likely demolished during the New Kingdom and according to its foundations it consisted in a colonnaded courtyard and an inner shrine. The valley temple has not been discovered. ^[3]

Many shaft tombs belonged to the royal women were discovered on the northern and southern sides of the main pyramid; it was believed that these shafts were topped by mastabas until Arnold in 1997 demonstrated that these consisted in the intricated rock-cut hypogea of seven small pyramids. Explorations of the northern tombs led to the discovery of the treasures of princesses Sithathor and Mereret (among these objects, the famous pectorals with the names of Senusret II, Senusret III and Amenemhat III now exhibited at the Cairo Museum), as well as the sarcophagi of princesses Menet and Senetsenebtysy and of queen Neferthenut. ^{[2] [4]} Among the southern tombs, the easternmost was discovered in 1994 and its hypogeum led to a burial chamber located under the main pyramid. Here, a granite sarcophagus was found, along with some objects bearing the name of Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret, Senusret III's royal mother. ^[2]

Hypogeum

Graffito of the striking-haired digger

De Morgan struggled for months to find the original entrance; after digging several tunnels directed towards the center of the monument, he finally found the thieves' tunnel. One of the passages was covered by graffiti which were rather alien to the Egyptian canons, the most famous among these represents a human head with a striking hairstyle. De Morgan argued that the tunnels and the graffiti were made by Semitic grave robbers during the Hyksos occupation. From the thieves' tunnels, de Morgan was able to trace the original entrance. ^[5]

Hypogea of the main pyramid (left) and of the four northern small pyramids (right)

From the entrance, located on the western side of the pyramid, a long descending hallway led to an antechamber which connects a storeroom on the west wall to the king's chamber on the east wall, the latter made from granite and provided with a granite sarcophagus on the western side, and a niche for the canopic chest on the southern one. The granite walls of the burial chamber were whiten with gypsum. Above the chamber Arnold found three relieving vaults made from granite (the bottom one), limestone (the middle one) and mudbricks (the top one) which were meant to discharge the weight on the underlying chamber's walls in order to prevent a roof collapse. The king's chamber contained pottery and a dagger, while the granite sarcophagus was empty. It is possible that Senusret III was never buried there and that he might have preferred his Abydene tomb as his final resting place, as suggested by the lack of a blocking system within this hypogeum. ^[1]

Excavation History

John Shae Perring was the first to excavate Senusret III's pyramid complex at Dahshur in 1839. In searching for the entrance of the pyramid, Perring removed debris from the area in front of the center of the north side, having no success he assumed that the entrance may be further north of the pyramid court, Perring dug a large trench north of the pyramid, without no result but he did discovered several blocks with inscriptions bearing hieroglyphics relief and two fragments decorated with stars on a blue ground that formed part of the ceiling in the eastern side. Karl Richard Lepsius was the second person to visit the king's pyramid in 1843 and recorded his findings of the location of the causeway and surviving walls in the northern side. ^[6]

These investigations continued in Jacques de Morgan's excavations. De Morgan conducted extensive excavations in 1894-1895. His team found a secondary (subsidiary) shaft leading to the queen's gallery in 1894. On April 15 of that same year , his workers began tunneling beneath the pyramid's base in search of the king's burial chamber or king's hypogeum. Work was interrupted on June 15, and the royal burial chamber was discovered during the second season in November of 1894. De Morgan also found graffiti on the walls of the serdab, a small adjoining room in the antechamber. The drawings mainly showed male profiles, although their date and the artists who drew them remain unidentified. ^[7]

De Morgan would come to discover broken limestone casing material covering the original entrance shaft in the western courtyard. De Morgan also mentions that there were no surviving remains of brick or stone blocking the entrance. In 1894, de Morgan also dug a large east-west trench near the center of the east side of the pyramid. De Morgan uncovered remains of the pyramid temple, where he found some relief fragments . In the underground tomb in Princess Itakayet's pyramid, he reported finding a blocked canopic shrine containing an unopened red granite chest and the chest held two ordinary alabaster canopic jars and two unusual oval containers with human-headed lids. ^[8]

De Morgan would come to discover broken limestone casing material covering the original entrance shaft in the western courtyard. De Morgan also mentions that there were no surviving remains of brick or stone blocking the entrance. In 1894, de Morgan also dug a large east-west trench near the center of the east side of the pyramid. De Morgan uncovered remains of the pyramid temple, where he found some relief fragments . In the underground tomb in Princess Itakayet's pyramid, he reported finding a blocked canopic shrine containing an unopened red granite chest and the chest held two ordinary alabaster canopic jars and two unusual oval containers with human-headed lids. ^[9]

The Metropolitan Museum of Art continued the fieldwork in 1990 with Arnold as the director of the excavation assisted by Oppenheim. The first season consisted of reopening and documenting the king's underground chambers and the queen gallery. The Arnold expedition also discovered the upper causeway, the southeastern enclosure, and outer walls. In 1992, work expanded to the lower causeway, the south temple area, and the eastern pyramid temple. ^[10]

In 1993 Arnold and his team recovered 2,500 relief fragments from the pyramid temple and south temple. He later discovered/ investigated the subsidiary pyramids and their chapels. The eastern chapel of Princess Itakayet's pyramid was discovered in 1996, and other royal women chapels in 1997. Later work in 1999 further exposed the main pyramid's foundations (dimensions, and other) and the brick core. Arnold then concluded his publications in his book " The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret III at Dahshur" in 2002, with contributions to Oppenheim and Allen, while Arnold did mention that further investigations of the complex still need to be looked at and investigated. Later excavation of the south temple resumed and was continued in 2017 and later on Oppenheim discovered granodiorite statue fragments in 2019, representing Senusret III in a knee-length sed festival ( cloak with crook and flail). This evidence concluded that solar cult (beliefs)/ imagery was a significant part of the complex's religious meaning. ^{[11] [12]}

The king’s underground chambers and sarcophagus

Entrance shaft and Neighboring rooms

photo taken in 2022, it shows the limestone wall of the corridor that leads to Senusret III's underground burial chamber (crypt).

The entrance shaft leading to Senusret III's underground royal funerary apartments lies in the courtyard west of his pyramid, about 35 meters south of the northwestern corner. The vertical entrance shaft measures about 1.04 x 2.62 meters wide and descends 11 meters below the ancient courtyard level. Its opening was originally lined up with bricks that deteriorated significantly over time and required reinforcement with a new brick lining. Arnold mentioned that the shaft was too narrow to have been used for the construction transport, which was carried out via other locations. From this shaft , a sloping corridor runs eastward, and the final 10 meters of the corridor are lined up with limestone blocks forming the floor, walls, and ceiling (about 92cm wide and 1.79 meters high). The lining consists of two courses of wall blocks leading to the underground apartment before turning right (south) toward the antechamber.The antechamber measures 2.34-2.35 x 3.69-3.71 meters, with a curved ceiling about 3.60-3.61 meters high . Three doorways connect to the antechamber: one to the north, Senusret III's burial (crypt) to the west and a serdab measuring 3.00 x 1.57 meters to the east, the purpose of which Arnold mentions remains unclear. ^[13]

Burial chamber and sarcophagus

Red granite sarcophagus of Pharaoh Senusret III inside the burial chamber (crypt) at Dahshur, Egypt. Taken in 2022.

The burial chamber of Senusret III was built primarily of red granite, with a sarcophagus placed on the west wall with its head end facing north .The chamber itself measures 2.70 meters wide and 5.24 meters long, with the ceiling height of 3.18-3.19 meters. Additionally, the south wall of the king's burial chamber was blocked by five limestone beams; Arnold pointed out that 4 of the lower beams remained in position, while the fifth beam was missing. The red granite sarcophagus found at Dahshur featured polished flat surfaces, sharply cut edges, and a lower exterior that resembles a paneled enclosure wall. Its lid has a shallow central rise, rectangular ends, and flat ledges along the long sides. Whether Senusret III was actually buried in this tomb at Dahshur or in his tomb at Abydos remains a subject of ongoing debate. ^{[14] [15]}

Findings, interpretation, and Debate about the burial location:

At Dahshur, De Morgan found no remains of stone or bricks blocking the entrance passage, leading Arnold to suggest that the passage may have never been sealed because the decision was made to bury King Senusret III elsewhere. Furthermore, Arnold's and his team found that the sarcophagus lid was a little open, as De Morgan also mentioned seeing it like that. Because its locking mechanism wasn't working properly, and the interior of the sarcophagus was perfectly clean with no bones, Arnold is not certain if Senusret III's body was buried in the tomb at Dahshur. ^[16]

Moreover, Verner mentions that Josef Wegner and other Egyptologist and archaeologists such as Mark Lehner, have proposed that the king's sarcophagus at Dahshur was intended as a royal cenotaph and that Senusret III was most likely buried in his underground tomb at Abydos rather than beneath the Dahshur pyramid. However, as Verner points out, Wegner's hypothesis remains unproven and questioned why the king would have departed from the tradition of royal pyramid burial. He also questions what religious or political circumstances might explain that choice. This description reflects Verner's assessment at the time of his publication was made, rather than a statement about the present state of this debate. ^[17]

“Royal women’s pyramids and burials”

Smaller and underground pyramids associated with royal women formed part of Senusret III's Pyramid complex at Dahshur. Queen Nefret-henut and Princess Itakayet were identified as the owners of northern pyramids 2 and 3 respectively . Princess Senet-senebetes occupied Tomb 7 in the underground subsidiary queen's gallery rather than having her own separate pyramid. Inscriptions, chapel fragments, sarcophagus, and surviving burial objects provide evidence of these women's identities and funerary arrangements. ^[18]

In Pyramid 2, Queen Nefret-henut's name and titles appeared on her sarcophagus and relief fragments from her eastern chapel, identifying her as the king's wife, hereditary princess, "she who sees Horus and Seth", (associated with the white crown). According to Daniel Fouquet, who examined her remains, the queen was likely between 40 and 45 years old when she died. Arnold excavations in 1997 uncovered part of the chapel's brick subfoundation, architectural pieces ,and small relief fragments; surviving casing fragments established that the pyramid had an inclination of 62 to 62.5 degrees. ^[19]

Arnold suggested that the base length is 16.80 meters, even though this couldn't be confirmed by Arnold. Arnold found that a second limestone sarcophagus was placed in the northern chamber of Nefret-henut tomb, but he couldn't identify who it belonged to. Queen Nefret sarcophagus, was made with dark almost yellow quartzite material, and it featured stone irregularities repaired with plaster. A pair of Wedjat eyes and an inscription with the queen name appeared on the north end of the east side; with carved details outlined in black almost ink . Arnold also found lever marks that were left by the robbers who tried raised its lid were still there , as well as he found a small piece of gold foil belonging to a nearby doorframe, supporting his conclusion that the tomb had received a burial and body was there. ^[20]

Arnold, identified Princess Itakayet's pyramid through her inscribed name and titles on a tympanum block from the east chapel, naming her "king's (Senusret III) bodily daughter" . De Morgan had first thought of the monument as a mastaba or rectangular tomb. Arnold's investigations of the surviving foundations mentioned that pyramid 3, belonging to Itakayet had a base of 16.80 meters. Arnold excavated the chapel in 1996 and recovered relief decoration fragments, also pieces of a vaulted ceiling with yellow stars on a blue type of background, and alabaster fragments from an altar. One of the ceiling fragments was part of the inscribed tympanum piece that had Itakayet's name. ^[21]

Arnold also found that Itakayet's burial chamber had a red granite sarcophagus with smooth surfaces, a curved lid, and no inscriptions or any carved decorations. A broken corner of the lid was repaired with plaster, and the sarcophagus was covered in a sort of pink wash. De Morgan reported finding an unopened red granite canopic chest behind her canopic shrine, containing two ordinary alabaster canopic jars and two unusual shaped oval alabaster jars, all with lids bearing human heads. Arnold mentions a flaw as De Morgan labeled them "near sarcophagus 3," which Arnold didn't know where the location was actually from, even though the granite chest belonged with Itakayet's sarcophagus and supports that it did in fact belong with her tomb. ^[22]

Arnold points out that Princess Senet-senebetes's tomb is located on the southern side of the western gallery. Arnold found that she had a gray limestone sarcophagus with a curved lid and a base decorated with paneling and gateways. The north end of the eastern side had a pair of Wedjat eyes and an offering inscription naming Senet- senebetes as a king's (Senusret III) daughter. Arnold also found that robbers had tried opening the northern end part of the lid and did achieve opening it with a stone heavy block. Arnold found remains of decayed wood that managed to survive inside the sarcophagus and two silver objects were on top of the rims. Arnold also found a separate niche that held a limestone canopic chest with wood and scattered gold foil found in the front of it (possibly from the interior part of the wooden canopic box), while the bottom of the interior had bones, pots, herbs, and limestone and little pieces of plaster. ^[23]

See also

• List of Egyptian pyramids

References

1. Lehner 1997, p. 177
2. Lehner 1997, p. 179
3. Lehner 1997, p. 178
4. Grimal 1992, p. 178
5. Cimmino 1996, pp. 288–9; n. 9
6. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 15, 46, 54. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
7. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 16, 42–43. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
8. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 34, 46, 66–67. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
9. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 34, 46, 66–67. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
10. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 16–17. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
11. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. p. 17. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
12. Oppenheim, Adela (2021). “The Solar Cult in the Pyramid Complex of Senusret III at Dahshur: An Overview.”. Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 141, 146–147, 152. ISBN   3447116773.
13. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. p. 34. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
14. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 3–36. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
15. Verner, Miroslav (2001). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. p. 418. ISBN   0-8021-1703-1.
16. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 34, 36, 42–43. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
17. Verner, Mirosalv (2001). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. p. 418. ISBN   0-8021-1703-1.
18. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 61–67, 71–72. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
19. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 61–62. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
20. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 61–63. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
21. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 63–65. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
22. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 66–67. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
23. Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret at Dahshur. Architectural Studies. New York: METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION. pp. 71–72. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.

• Cimmino, Franco (1996). Storia delle Piramidi. Milano: Rusconi. ISBN   88-18-70143-6.
• Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ISBN   9780631174721.
• Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids . London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN   0-500-05084-8.

Further reading

• Arnold, Dieter (2002). The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret III at Dahshur, Architectural Studies. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN   0-87099-956-7.
• de Morgan, Jacques (1895). Fouilles à Dahchour: Mars–Juin 1894. Vienne: Adolphe Holzhausen.