Radiative cooling

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In the study of heat transfer, radiative cooling [1] [2] is the process by which a body loses heat by thermal radiation. As Planck's law describes, every physical body spontaneously and continuously emits electromagnetic radiation.

Contents

Radiative cooling has been applied in various contexts throughout human history, including ice making in India and Iran, [3] heat shields for spacecraft, [4] and in architecture. [5] In 2014, a scientific breakthrough in the use of photonic metamaterials made daytime radiative cooling possible. [6] [7] It has since been proposed as a strategy to mitigate local and global warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions known as passive daytime radiative cooling. [8]

Terrestrial radiative cooling

Mechanism

Infrared radiation can pass through dry, clear air in the wavelength range of 8–13 μm. Materials that can absorb energy and radiate it in those wavelengths exhibit a strong cooling effect. Materials that can also reflect 95% or more of sunlight in the 200 nanometres to 2.5 μm range can exhibit cooling even in direct sunlight. [9]

Earth's energy budget

The Earth-atmosphere system is radiatively cooled, emitting long-wave (infrared) radiation which balances the absorption of short-wave (visible light) energy from the sun.

Convective transport of heat, and evaporative transport of latent heat are both important in removing heat from the surface and distributing it in the atmosphere. Pure radiative transport is more important higher up in the atmosphere. Diurnal and geographical variation further complicate the picture.

The large-scale circulation of the Earth's atmosphere is driven by the difference in absorbed solar radiation per square meter, as the sun heats the Earth more in the Tropics, mostly because of geometrical factors. The atmospheric and oceanic circulation redistributes some of this energy as sensible heat and latent heat partly via the mean flow and partly via eddies, known as cyclones in the atmosphere. Thus the tropics radiate less to space than they would if there were no circulation, and the poles radiate more; however in absolute terms the tropics radiate more energy to space.

Nocturnal surface cooling

Radiative cooling is commonly experienced on cloudless nights, when heat is radiated into outer space from Earth's surface, or from the skin of a human observer. The effect is well-known among amateur astronomers.

The effect can be experienced by comparing skin temperature from looking straight up into a cloudless night sky for several seconds, to that after placing a sheet of paper between the face and the sky. Since outer space radiates at about a temperature of 3  K (−270.15  °C ; −454.27  °F ), and the sheet of paper radiates at about 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F) (around room temperature), the sheet of paper radiates more heat to the face than does the darkened cosmos. The effect is blunted by Earth's surrounding atmosphere, and particularly the water vapor it contains, so the apparent temperature of the sky is far warmer than outer space. The sheet does not block the cold, but instead reflects heat to the face and radiates the heat of the face that it just absorbed.

The same radiative cooling mechanism can cause frost or black ice to form on surfaces exposed to the clear night sky, even when the ambient temperature does not fall below freezing.

Kelvin's estimate of the Earth's age

The term radiative cooling is generally used for local processes, though the same principles apply to cooling over geological time, which was first used by Kelvin to estimate the age of the Earth (although his estimate ignored the substantial heat released by radioisotope decay, not known at the time, and the effects of convection in the mantle).

Astronomy

Radiative cooling is one of the few ways an object in space can give off energy. In particular, white dwarf stars are no longer generating energy by fusion or gravitational contraction, and have no solar wind. So the only way their temperature changes is by radiative cooling. This makes their temperature as a function of age very predictable, so by observing the temperature, astronomers can deduce the age of the star. [10] [11]

Applications

Climate change

This section is an excerpt from Passive daytime radiative cooling.[ edit ]
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) can lower temperatures with zero energy consumption or pollution by radiating heat into outer space. Widespread application has been proposed as a solution to global warming. Passive daytime radiative cooling diagram.jpg
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) can lower temperatures with zero energy consumption or pollution by radiating heat into outer space. Widespread application has been proposed as a solution to global warming.
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) (also passive radiative cooling, daytime passive radiative cooling, radiative sky cooling, photonic radiative cooling, and terrestrial radiative cooling [13] [14] [15] [16] ) is the use of unpowered, reflective/thermally-emissive surfaces to lower the temperature of a building or other object. [17]

It has been proposed as a method of reducing temperature increases caused by greenhouse gases by reducing the energy needed for air conditioning, [18] [19] lowering the urban heat island effect, [20] [21] and lowering human body temperatures. [22] [12] [23] [24] [25]

PDRCs can aid systems that are more efficient at lower temperatures, such as photovoltaic systems, [15] [26] dew collection devices, and thermoelectric generators. [27] [26]
Passive radiative cooling technologies use the infrared window of 8-13 mm to radiate heat into outer space and impede solar absorption. Atmosfaerisk spredning.png
Passive radiative cooling technologies use the infrared window of 8–13 μm to radiate heat into outer space and impede solar absorption.

Architecture

Different roof materials absorb more or less heat. A higher roof albedo, or the whiter a roof, the higher its solar reflectance and heat emittance, which can reduce energy use and costs. Roof-albedo.svg
Different roof materials absorb more or less heat. A higher roof albedo, or the whiter a roof, the higher its solar reflectance and heat emittance, which can reduce energy use and costs.

Cool roofs combine high solar reflectance with high infrared emittance, thereby simultaneously reducing heat gain from the sun and increasing heat removal through radiation. Radiative cooling thus offers potential for passive cooling for residential and commercial buildings. [5] Traditional building surfaces, such as paint coatings, brick and concrete have high emittances of up to 0.96. [28] They radiate heat into the sky to passively cool buildings at night. If made sufficiently reflective to sunlight, these materials can also achieve radiative cooling during the day.

The most common radiative coolers found on buildings are white cool-roof paint coatings, which have solar reflectances of up to 0.94, and thermal emittances of up to 0.96. [29] The solar reflectance of the paints arises from optical scattering by the dielectric pigments embedded in the polymer paint resin, while the thermal emittance arises from the polymer resin. However, because typical white pigments like titanium dioxide and zinc oxide absorb ultraviolet radiation, the solar reflectances of paints based on such pigments do not exceed 0.95.

In 2014, researchers developed the first daytime radiative cooler using a multi-layer thermal photonic structure that selectively emits long wavelength infrared radiation into space, and can achieve 5 °C sub-ambient cooling under direct sunlight. [30] Later researchers developed paintable porous polymer coatings, whose pores scatter sunlight to give solar reflectance of 0.96-0.99 and thermal emittance of 0.97. [31] In experiments under direct sunlight, the coatings achieve 6 °C sub-ambient temperatures and cooling powers of 96 W/m2.

Other notable radiative cooling strategies include dielectric films on metal mirrors, [32] and polymer or polymer composites on silver or aluminum films. [33] Silvered polymer films with solar reflectances of 0.97 and thermal emittance of 0.96, which remain 11 °C cooler than commercial white paints under the mid-summer sun, were reported in 2015. [34] Researchers explored designs with dielectric silicon dioxide or silicon carbide particles embedded in polymers that are translucent in the solar wavelengths and emissive in the infrared. [35] [36] In 2017, an example of this design with resonant polar silica microspheres randomly embedded in a polymeric matrix, was reported. [37] The material is translucent to sunlight and has infrared emissivity of 0.93 in the infrared atmospheric transmission window. When backed with silver coating, the material achieved a midday radiative cooling power of 93 W/m2 under direct sunshine along with high-throughput, economical roll-to-roll manufacturing.

Heat shields

High emissivity coatings that facilitate radiative cooling may be used in reusable thermal protection systems (RTPS) in spacecraft and hypersonic aircraft. In such heat shields a high emissivity material, such as molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) is applied on a thermally insulating ceramic substrate. [4] In such heat shields high levels of total emissivity, typically in the range 0.8 - 0.9, need to be maintained across a range of high temperatures. Planck's law dictates that at higher temperatures the radiative emission peak shifts to lower wavelengths (higher frequencies), influencing material selection as a function of operating temperature. In addition to effective radiative cooling, radiative thermal protection systems should provide damage tolerance and may incorporate self-healing functions through the formation of a viscous glass at high temperatures.

James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope uses radiative cooling to reach its operation temperature of about 50 K. To do this, its large reflective sunshield blocks radiation from the Sun, Earth, and Moon. The telescope structure, kept permanently in shadow by the sunshield, then cools by radiation.

Nocturnal ice making in early India and Iran

Yakhchal radiative cooling.svg
Radiative cooling energy budget
Yakhchal-kheshti.jpg
Ice Pool beside the Meybod yakhchāl in Iran

Before the invention of artificial refrigeration technology, ice making by nocturnal cooling was common in both India and Iran.

In India, such apparatuses consisted of a shallow ceramic tray with a thin layer of water, placed outdoors with a clear exposure to the night sky. The bottom and sides were insulated with a thick layer of hay. On a clear night the water would lose heat by radiation upwards. Provided the air was calm and not too far above freezing, heat gain from the surrounding air by convection was low enough to allow the water to freeze. [38] [39] [3]

In Iran, this involved making large flat ice pools, which consisted of a reflection pool of water built on a bed of highly insulative material surrounded by high walls. The high walls provided protection against convective warming, the insulative material of the pool walls would protect against conductive heating from the ground, the large flat plane of water would then permit evaporative and radiative cooling to take place.

Types

Earth's longwave thermal radiation intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and surface Erbe.gif
Earth's longwave thermal radiation intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and surface

The three basic types of radiant cooling are direct, indirect, and fluorescent:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albedo</span> Ratio of how much light is reflected back from a body

Albedo is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 to 1. Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse effect</span> Atmospheric phenomenon causing planetary warming

The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases in a planet's atmosphere insulate the planet from losing heat to space, raising its surface temperature. Surface heating can happen from an internal heat source as in the case of Jupiter, or from its host star as in the case of the Earth. In the case of Earth, the Sun emits shortwave radiation (sunlight) that passes through greenhouse gases to heat the Earth's surface. In response, the Earth's surface emits longwave radiation that is mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. The absorption of longwave radiation prevents it from reaching space, reducing the rate at which the Earth can cool off.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infrared</span> Form of electromagnetic radiation

Infrared is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than that of visible light but shorter than microwaves. The infrared spectral band begins with waves that are just longer than those of red light, so IR is invisible to the human eye. IR is generally understood to include wavelengths from around 750 nm (400 THz) to 1 mm (300 GHz). IR is commonly divided between longer-wavelength thermal IR, emitted from terrestrial sources, and shorter-wavelength IR or near-IR, part of the solar spectrum. Longer IR wavelengths (30–100 μm) are sometimes included as part of the terahertz radiation band. Almost all black-body radiation from objects near room temperature is in the IR band. As a form of electromagnetic radiation, IR carries energy and momentum, exerts radiation pressure, and has properties corresponding to both those of a wave and of a particle, the photon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban heat island</span> Situation where cities are warmer than surrounding areas

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect, that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor. A study has shown that heat islands can be affected by proximity to different types of land cover, so that proximity to barren land causes urban land to become hotter and proximity to vegetation makes it cooler. As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas. Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.

A Trombe wall is a massive equator-facing wall that is painted a dark color in order to absorb thermal energy from incident sunlight and covered with a glass on the outside with an insulating air-gap between the wall and the glaze. A Trombe wall is a passive solar building design strategy that adopts the concept of indirect-gain, where sunlight first strikes a solar energy collection surface in contact with a thermal mass of air. The sunlight absorbed by the mass is converted to thermal energy (heat) and then transferred into the living space.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive solar building design</span> Architectural engineering that uses the Suns heat without electric or mechanical systems

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, reflect, and distribute solar energy, in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermal radiation</span> Electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of particles

Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by the thermal motion of particles in matter. Thermal radiation transmits as an electromagnetic wave through both matter and vacuum. When matter absorbs thermal radiation its temperature will tend to rise. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. The emission of energy arises from a combination of electronic, molecular, and lattice oscillations in a material. Kinetic energy is converted to electromagnetism due to charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation. At room temperature, most of the emission is in the infrared (IR) spectrum. Thermal radiation is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer, along with conduction and convection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emissivity</span> Capacity of an object to radiate electromagnetic energy

The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation that most commonly includes both visible radiation (light) and infrared radiation, which is not visible to human eyes. A portion of the thermal radiation from very hot objects is easily visible to the eye.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar mirror</span> Type of mirror designed for sunlight

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable architecture</span> Architecture designed to minimize environmental impact

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)</span>

Reflective surfaces, or ground-based albedo modification (GBAM), is a solar radiation management method of enhancing Earth's albedo. The IPCC described this method as "whitening roofs, changes in land use management, change of albedo at a larger scale ."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vanadium(IV) oxide</span> Chemical compound

Vanadium(IV) oxide or vanadium dioxide is an inorganic compound with the formula VO2. It is a dark blue solid. Vanadium(IV) dioxide is amphoteric, dissolving in non-oxidising acids to give the blue vanadyl ion, [VO]2+ and in alkali to give the brown [V4O9]2− ion, or at high pH [VO4]4−. VO2 has a phase transition very close to room temperature (~68 °C (341 K)). Electrical resistivity, opacity, etc, can change up several orders. Owing to these properties, it has been used in surface coating, sensors, and imaging. Potential applications include use in memory devices, phase-change switches, passive radiative cooling applications, such as smart windows and roofs, that cool or warm depending on temperature, aerospace communication systems and neuromorphic computing. It occurs in nature, as the mineral, Paramontroseite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive cooling</span> Building design approach

Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no energy consumption. This approach works either by preventing heat from entering the interior or by removing heat from the building.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outgoing longwave radiation</span> Energy transfer mechanism which enables planetary cooling

In climate science, longwave radiation (LWR) is electromagnetic thermal radiation emitted by Earth's surface, atmosphere, and clouds. It may also be referred to as terrestrial radiation. This radiation is in the infrared portion of the spectrum, but is distinct from the shortwave (SW) near-infrared radiation found in sunlight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building insulation</span> Material to reduce heat transfer in structures

Building insulation is material used in a building to reduce the flow of thermal energy. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation. Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar gain</span> Solar energy effect

Solar gain is the increase in thermal energy of a space, object or structure as it absorbs incident solar radiation. The amount of solar gain a space experiences is a function of the total incident solar irradiance and of the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation.

Thermal emittance or thermal emissivity is the ratio of the radiant emittance of heat of a specific object or surface to that of a standard black body. Emissivity and emittivity are both dimensionless quantities given in the range of 0 to 1, representing the comparative/relative emittance with respect to a blackbody operating in similar conditions, but emissivity refers to a material property, while emittivity refers to specific samples or objects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spacecraft thermal control</span> Process of keeping all parts of a spacecraft within acceptable temperature ranges

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive daytime radiative cooling</span> Management strategy for global warming

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) is the use of unpowered, reflective/thermally-emissive surfaces to lower the temperature of a building or other object.

References

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