Red salamander

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Red salamander
Northern red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber).JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Urodela
Family: Plethodontidae
Genus: Pseudotriton
Species:
P. ruber
Binomial name
Pseudotriton ruber
(Latreille, 1801)
Synonyms

The red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) is a species of salamander in the family (Plethodontidae) (lungless salamanders) endemic to the eastern United States. Its skin is orange/red with random black spots. Its habitats are temperate forests, small creeks, ponds, forests, temperate shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater, trees springs. Overall this species is common and widespread, [1] but locally it has declined because of habitat loss and it is considered threatened in Indiana and New York. [2] Red salamanders eat insects, earthworms, spiders, small crustaceans, snails, and smaller salamanders. To eat, they extend their tongue to capture prey on the tip of it and retract it back into their mouths. [3] The red salamander, as a member of the family Plethodontidae (lungless salamanders) lacks lungs and respires through its skin. [4]

Description

Pseudotriton ruber is a medium-large salamander, with adults ranging from 4.3 to 7.1 in (11–18 cm) in total length. It has relatively stout bodies with 16–18 coastal grooved sides. [5] It is back that varies in color from an orange-brownish tint to a bright red, depending on its age. Like other salamanders, the red salamander seems to lose its color as it ages, becoming more darkly pigmented with less obscure patterns. [6] The larvae of this species have a stout head and body, dark in coloration, lack spots, and tend to have distinct mottling or streaks. [7] Another distinguishing characteristic of P. ruber is the appearance of numerous irregular black spots down its back. Although the red salamander is brilliantly colored and has many distinguishing features, it is sometimes difficult to tell species apart. P. ruber is most similar in appearance to the mud salamander (P. montanus), but can be distinguished by the difference in size and number of spots running down the dorsum and also by the difference in the color of the iris. Both P. ruber and P. montanus have bright red colorations that have been considered examples of a Müllerian mimetic complex. [8] The red salamander has more spots and the spots also tend to be larger in size than those of the mud salamander. In regard to eye color, the red salamander's iris is a gold-like tint, whereas the mud salamander's iris is brown. [2] The gold-like tint iris for the red salamander is also distinguished by its horizontal bar that runs through the iris. [9] Mud salamanders typically have a blunter snout than the red salamander. [6] Also, the mud salamanders typically have a more contrasting dorsal and ventral coloration than the red salamanders that are more uniform in color. [6]

Taxonomy

P. ruber Pseudotriton ruber - Red Salamander.jpg
P. ruber

In the Plethodontidae (lungless salamanders), many members respire through their skin and the lining in their mouths. Lunglessness in this family may have evolved due to an adaptation for life in streams, and members of the family Plethodontidae probably did evolve other methods for respiration other than lungs (i.e. gills) due to enhanced survival of larval salamanders in fast-moving stream environments of southern Appalachia. [10] [11] Lungs in general help aquatic animals maintain position in the water column, but the larvae of Plethodontidae members are benthic creatures, therefore the adaptation of lunglessness would be beneficial to them since buoyancy would endanger their survival. [11] The red salamander is further classified as a member of the genus Pseudotriton . Members of this genus include only the red salamander and the mud salamander.

Distribution

The four subspecies of P. ruber are found across the eastern United States, occupying streams through open areas such as fields and meadows and deciduous or mixed hardwood forests, especially near streams, seepages, and damp settings. [12] Red Salamanders are also found in deciduous or mixed hardwood forests, especially near streams, seepages, and damp settings Each subspecies is similar in appearance with slight differences in size and coloration, but are found in different habitats. The northern red salamander, P. r. ruber, is characterized as being red or reddish-orange with numerous black spots down its back. This subspecies is the most common and can be found from southern New York and Ohio to northeast Alabama, as well as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. [6] Similar in appearance to the northern red salamander is the Blue Ridge red salamander, P. r. nitidus. This species differs it is slightly smaller and lacks black coloration on the tip of the tail and chin. [6] The Blue Ridge red salamander is found in elevations to more than 5,000 ft (1,500 m) in the southern part of the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia. [6] The blackchin red salamander, P. r. schencki, differs in appearance by having strong black coloration under its chin, as well as spotting all the way to the tip of the tail. [6] It can also be found in elevations to more than 5,000 ft (1,500 m) in the Blue Ridge Mountains. [6] The southern red salamander (P. r. vioscai) is often purplish- to salmon-colored and normally has white spots on its head. This subspecies is found from southern South Carolina to southeast Louisiana and southwest Kentucky. All subspecies of P. ruber occupy moist environments such as under moss and stones near clear water sources such as streams or springs. [6] Red salamanders are normally not found near large streams, but instead near smaller water sources. [13]

Ecology

P. ruber Pseudotriton ruber.jpg
P. ruber

Some important aquatic and terrestrial ecological aspects of this salamander include its diet, predators, and microhabitat preferences. Larvae mainly feed on invertebrates such as insect larvae and worms. [14] Larvae diet specifically has been shown to consist of Chironomidae (36.52% of prey items) and Sphaeriidae (15.17%) as well as terrestrial prey (7.87%) and other salamanders. [15] Larval growth rates differ depending on the temperature of the water and tend to be higher in the warmer months when water temperature is higher. [13] [16] The red salamander generally lays eggs in the fall and hatching season takes place in the late fall and winter. [16] The larval period varies between 27 and 31 months and then metamorphosis takes place in the spring and early summer of the third year. [16] The larvae go through metamorphosis after a few weeks or months, depending on the environmental conditions. [17] Larval red salamanders are generalists, eating whatever is available. [18] The rates typically increase when water temperature is low and larger individuals feed more than smaller individuals. [18] Although feeding rates appear to increase with increasing size, mortality rates, though, seem to be independent of size or age and survival is estimated to be about 50% per year. [16] The longer larval period ensures that transformation occurs when the salamanders are much larger than other species of salamanders and typically have a short juvenile period, maturing quickly. [13] Larval duration and size at metamorphosis decrease with increasing elevation. [19] Males mature at about 53–63 mm (2.1–2.5 in), typically at four years of age, and females mature at about 55–68 mm (2.2–2.7 in), typically at about five years of age. [13]

Red salamanders generally live in springs or streams during the winter and then disperse to and from these sites in the fall and spring. [20] Due to its semiaquatic nature, the red salamander remains in terrestrial environments until early spring then disperses to more aquatic sites. [13] Adults often live in burrows along streams and in other moist environments such as under logs and rocks along the forest floor. [14] Adult red salamanders, like their larvae, are generalists and tend to feed on invertebrates (such as earthworms, slugs, snails, spiders, diving beetles and other insects), [21] as well as small amphibians, [14] including the red-backed salamander. [21] Its predators include birds and small carnivores such as skunks and raccoons. [13] Since the red salamander is a large species of salamander, its presence or absence can greatly affect the ecosystem where it lives, and understanding its ecology is important to understand its role in community structures.

Life history

P. ruber has a wide range in its breeding season, which is only limited by extremely cold temperatures. [13] Adults are known to migrate from streams and bodies of water to terrestrial habitats during specific seasons each year. They will then return to aquatic streams in the late summer and early fall to begin breeding. [22] Generally, however, adult red salamanders mate annually and engage in primitive courting activities. [20] [23] Courtship between two red salamanders involves:

"A male approaches a female, rubbing his snout against her snout, cheeks, and chin. The male then moves his head and body under her chin and starts tail undulations. The female then straddles the male's tail and the pair engages in a straddled 'walk' until the male deposits sperm on the substrate. The 'straddle-walk' approximately lasts two minutes and once the sperm is deposited, the female picks up the sperm cap as she moves over it and then they separate." [23]

Females are capable of long-term sperm storage and may not lay eggs for months after mating. [13] Females typically lay eggs in the fall or early winter in headwater streams, have very well-hidden nests. [14] The eggs are usually placed in clusters and cling to submerged plants or other objects. [24]

Based on presence of scars and hypertrophied jaws in mature males, it is suggested that male P. ruber might be involved in mate-guarding behavior. [25] Males occasionally court other males as a means of sperm competition to get the other male to deposit spermatophores, giving them a better chance of successful mating over their competitors. [23]

Other important behavioral aspects of P. ruber include its defensive mechanisms. When threatened, red salamanders assume a defensive posture in which they curl their bodies, elevating and extending their rears, and placing their heads under their tails which are elevated and undulated from side to side. [26] The coloration of the red salamander has been hypothesized to mimic that of the red eft stage of the eastern newt (Notophythalmus viridescens) which emits a powerful neurotoxin in their skin. [27] This phenomenon is known as the Mullerian Mimicry Complex. [28] However, this hypothesis was heavily criticized due to significant size differences in the organisms and the differences in the species' times of foraging ( i.e. P. ruber mainly at night and the red eft mainly during the day). [29] More recently, red salamanders have been noted to have reduced palatability, so they are considered part of a Müllerian mimicry system in which all species are unpalatable and benefit from aposematic coloration. [13] In human trials, subjects reported no noxious or repulsive taste of Red Salamanders. [30] P. ruber possesses pseudotritontoxin that has adverse effects on mice including: hypertension of hind legs and lower back, irritability, hypothermia, coma, and death within 12-48 hours. [31]

Conservation

Overall the red salamander is common and widespread, [1] but locally it has declined because of habitat loss and it is listed as an endangered species in Indiana. [32]

The red salamander is arguably one of the most primitive plethodontids, so is extremely valuable in understanding the links to ancestors and the evolutionary processes that have occurred. [23] Maintaining species diversity is an important part of conservation, and to prevent the loss of salamander diversity as a whole, it is important to have some type of management plan in place to prevent P. ruber from escalating from a low conservation status to a higher level of concern. Since the red salamander prefers streams that are relatively pure, it is important to monitor human waste and pollution, since debris and silt could have adverse effects on their habitat, potentially causing a threat to survival.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salamander</span> Order of amphibians

Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by their lizard-like appearance, with slender bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs projecting at right angles to the body, and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults. All ten extant salamander families are grouped together under the order Urodela from the group Caudata. Salamander diversity is highest in eastern North America, especially in the Appalachian Mountains; most species are found in the Holarctic realm, with some species present in the Neotropical realm.

<i>Amphiuma</i> Genus of amphibians

Amphiuma is a genus of aquatic salamanders from the United States, the only extant genus within the family Amphiumidae. They are colloquially known as amphiumas. They are also known to fishermen as "conger eels" or "Congo snakes", which are zoologically incorrect designations or misnomers, since amphiumas are actually salamanders, and not fish, nor reptiles and are not from Congo. Amphiuma exhibits one of the largest complements of DNA in the living world, around 25 times more than a human.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barton Springs salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Barton Springs salamander is an endangered lungless salamander. It is endemic to Texas, United States. It was first found in Barton Springs in Austin, but is now also known from other localities in the nearby Travis and Hays Counties. Barton Springs is located within Zilker Park which is situated in the Edwards Aquifer in Austin, Texas. Eliza Springs, located within Barton Springs, has one of the largest populations of Barton Springs salamanders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plethodontidae</span> Family of amphibians

Plethodontidae, or lungless salamanders, are a family of salamanders. With over 500 species, lungless salamanders are by far the largest family of salamanders in terms of their diversity. Most species are native to the Western Hemisphere, from British Columbia to Brazil. Only two extant genera occur in the Eastern Hemisphere: Speleomantes and Karsenia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern newt</span> Species of amphibian

The eastern newt is a common newt of eastern North America. It frequents small lakes, ponds, and streams or nearby wet forests. The eastern newt produces tetrodotoxin, which makes the species unpalatable to predatory fish and crayfish. It has a lifespan of 12 to 15 years in the wild, and it may grow to 5 in (13 cm) in length. These animals are common aquarium pets, being either collected from the wild or sold commercially. The striking bright orange juvenile stage, which is land-dwelling, is known as a red eft. Some sources blend the general name of the species and that of the red-spotted newt subspecies into the eastern red-spotted newt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Texas blind salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Texas blind salamander is a rare and endangered cave-dwelling troglobite amphibian native to San Marcos, Hays County, Texas, specifically the San Marcos Pool of the Edwards Aquifer. This species resembles the olm, another stygofaunal salamander from Europe. Unlike the olm, this amphibian's body is not as elongated, and also has less reduced digits on its limbs.

Eurycea neotenes, also known as the Texas salamander, Bexar County salamander, Edwards Plateau salamander, or Texas neotenic salamander, is a species of entirely aquatic, lungless salamander native to the United States. It is endemic to central Texas, near Helotes, in Bexar County.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seepage salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The seepage salamander is a small, terrestrial species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is endemic to the United States. They are found in small areas of Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, intermittent rivers, and freshwater springs. It gets its name from the seepages around which it lives. It is very similar in its appearance and life history to the pygmy salamander. These two species differ greatly from the other Desmognathus species. They are the smallest salamanders in the genus, measuring only 3–5 cm (1–2 in) in length. They are also the only two terrestrial, direct-developing Desmognathus species. However, the two species are not often seen to coexist, differing in distribution by elevation; although there are exceptions. The seepage salamander is currently listed as Near Threatened, with its numbers declining in most of states in which it is found. It is threatened by habitat loss, with logging having a major effect.

<i>Desmognathus fuscus</i> Species of amphibian

Desmognathus fuscus is a species of amphibian in the family Plethodontidae. The species is commonly called the dusky salamander or northern dusky salamander to distinguish it from populations in the southern United States which form several distinct species, the southern dusky salamanders. The northern dusky salamander is the most widespread representative of its genus in Canada. It can be found in eastern North America from extreme eastern Canada in New Brunswick south to South Carolina. The size of the species' total population is unknown, but is assumed to easily exceed 100,000. The species' habitat differs somewhat geographically; dusky salamanders in the northern part of the range prefer rocky woodland streams, seepages, and springs, while those in the south favor floodplains, sloughs, and muddy places along upland streams. They are most common where water is running or trickling. They hide under various objects, such as leaves or rocks, either in or near water. Alternatively, they may enter burrows for protection. The dusky salamander lays its eggs close to water under moss or rocks, in logs, or in stream-bank cavities. The larval stage which follows is normally aquatic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocoee salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The ocoee salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. This salamander has a variety of colors and patterns, and got its name from Tennessee state wildflower. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater springs and wet rocks in mountainous areas of the Southeastern United States. It was first described by Nicholls in 1949. They are territorial and feed on small invertebrates. It is widely distributed in the southeastern United States and is listed as "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern two-lined salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The northern two-lined salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae found in Canada and the United States. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, temperate shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, arable land, and urban areas. It is more water-oriented than the related northern redback salamander, and can often be found in and around water such as rain puddles, streams, swamps, and damp stream beds, whereas the northern redback tends to be found in damp ground, but usually not near open water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Junaluska salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Junaluska salamander is a species of lungless salamander native to the south-eastern United States. It was first described by David M. Sever, Harold M. Dundee, and Charles D. Sullivan who found the species in the range from the Cheoah River, Santeetlah Creek, and Tululah Creek in Graham County of North Carolina. Adults of this species can be found near large, rocky streams and on rainy nights on roads in the areas specified. The salamander is characterized by brownish-yellow coloration with a series of small dots along the body and a robust build compared to the other salamanders in Eurycea. The Junaluska salamander's breeding habits tend to be in large streams where the eggs are laid and attached to the bottom of rocks in the streams where they are found. According to the overall conservation listing for IUCN, this species is listed as Vulnerable. Conservation acts are important in both North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee, since the population of this species in each state is so small.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue Ridge two-lined salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the United States. This species is found in the southern Appalachian Mountains, mostly south of Virginia. To the north is a similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, or the northern two-lined salamander. Its genus, Eurycea contains 33 species and includes taxa that have either a metamorphic life cycle or larval-form paedomorphosis. In species that metamorphose, there can be within-and among-population variation in larval life-history characteristics, e.g., duration of the larval period and size at metamorphosis. Intraspecific geographic variation in species of Eurycea has been attributed to several factors: temperature, stream order and productivity of the larval habitat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tennessee cave salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Tennessee cave salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the Appalachian Mountains in the United States. Its natural habitats are streams in caves. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spring salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The spring salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is found in Canada and the United States. The genus, Gyrinophilus, means "tadpole lover" and refers to the long period of time it spends as a gilled larva before maturing. The specific epithet, porphyriticus, is Latin from Greek, meaning the color of porphyry, a purple stone, and this salamander has also been called the purple salamander.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mud salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The mud salamander is a bright red salamander of the family Plethodontidae. It is found in streams, seeps and swamps and underneath logs, rocks and leaves. It is endemic to the eastern half of the United States with one isolated population in central Mississippi. Mud salamanders are rarely seen plethodontids that inhabit muddy wetland and riparian habitats. Mud salamanders don’t generally live above 700 meters in elevation in the Appalachian Mountains, resulting in two geographically isolated populations. Mud salamanders have short stocky bodies ranging from 7.5 to 16 cm long. Body color ranges with age and locality. There are four subspecies in the mud salamander complex, namely the Gulf Coast mud salamander, rusty mud salamander, Midland mud salamander and the eastern mud salamander. Mud salamanders are ectothermic, meaning that they cannot control their body temperature and it fluctuates with the temperature. The mud salamander is readily confused with two other species, the red salamander and the spring salamander.

<i>Pseudotriton</i> Genus of amphibians

Pseudotriton is a genus of salamanders in the family Plethodontidae. They are endemic to eastern and southern United States, from New York south to Florida and west to southern Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and eastern Louisiana. They are commonly known as red salamanders or mud salamanders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Many-lined salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The many-lined salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is the only species of the monotypic genus Stereochilus. It is endemic to the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted-tail salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The spotted-tail salamander, also known as a "cave salamander", is a species of brook salamander.

References

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  3. ↑ Marvin, Glenn; Paul, Cupp (2018). "Chemical Detection of Intraguild Predators (Gyrinophilus, Pseudotriton) by Streamside Plethodontid Salamanders (Eurycea)". Southeastern Naturalist. 17 (1): 166–175. doi:10.1656/058.017.0117. S2CID   91078114.
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  5. ↑ Martof, Bernard S.; Francis, Rose L. (1962). "The comparative osteology of the anterior cranial elements of the salamanders Gyrinophilus and Pseudotriton". Copeia. 727–732.
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  9. ↑ Folt, Brian; Garrison, Nicole; Guyer, Craig; Rodriguez, Juanita; Bond, Jason E. (May 2016). "Phylogeography and evolution of the Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 98: 97–110. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.01.016. PMID   26872531.
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  15. ↑ Cecala, Kristen K.; Price, Steven J.; Dorcas, Michael E. (December 2007). "Diet of Larval Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton Ruber) Examined Using a Nonlethal Technique". Journal of Herpetology. 41 (4): 741–745. doi:10.1670/07-019.1. ISSN   0022-1511. S2CID   53067584.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Bruce, Richard C. (1972). "The Larval Life of the Red Salamander, Pseudotriton ruber". Journal of Herpetology. 6 (1): 43–51. doi:10.2307/1563093. JSTOR   1563093.
  17. ↑ Wang, Kenneth; et al. (2023). ""An evaluation of sexual dimorphism in head size and shape in Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber)."". Reptiles and Amphibians 30.1. 30: e18211. doi: 10.17161/randa.v30i1.18211 .
  18. 1 2 Cecala, Kristen K.; Price, Steven J.; Dorcas, Michael E. (2007). "Diet of Larval Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber) Examined Using a Nonlethal Technique". Journal of Herpetology. 41 (4): 741–745. doi:10.1670/07-019.1. JSTOR   40060469. S2CID   53067584.
  19. ↑ Semlitsch, Raymond D. (1983). "Growth and Metamorphosis of Larval Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber) on the Coastal Plain of South Carolina". Herpetologica. 39 (1): 48–52. JSTOR   3892475.
  20. 1 2 Bruce, Richard C. (1978). "Reproductive Biology of the Salamander Pseudotriton ruber in the Southern Blue Ridge Mountains". Copeia. 1978 (3): 417–423. doi:10.2307/1443605. JSTOR   1443605.
  21. 1 2 "Pseudotriton ruber (Red Salamander)". Animal Diversity Web .
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  23. 1 2 3 4 Organ, James A.; Organ, Della J. (1968). "Courtship Behavior of the Red Salamander, Pseudotriton ruber". Copeia. 1968 (2): 217–223. doi:10.2307/1441744. JSTOR   1441744.
  24. ↑ Bruce, Richard, C (1978). ""Reproductive biology of the salamander Pseudotriton ruber in the southern Blue Ridge Mountains."". Copeia: 417–423. doi:10.2307/1443605. JSTOR   1443605.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Wang, Kenneth; Brandon, Tyshiona; McDonald, Kelly-Ann; Pierson, Todd (2023-03-14). "An evaluation of sexual dimorphism in head size and shape of Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber)". Reptiles & Amphibians. 30 (1): e18211. doi: 10.17161/randa.v30i1.18211 . ISSN   2332-4961. S2CID   257579622.
  26. ↑ Brandon, Ronald A.; Labanick, George M.; Huheey, James E. (1979). "Relative Palatability, Defensive Behavior, and Mimetic Relationships of Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber), Mud Salamanders (Pseudotriton montanus), and Red Efts (Notophthalmus viridescens)". Herpetologica. 35 (4): 289–303. JSTOR   3891961.
  27. ↑ Howard, Ronnie R.; Brodie, Edmund D. (September 1971). "Experimental Study of Mimicry in Salamanders involving Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens and Pseudotriton ruber schencki". Nature. 233 (5317): 277. Bibcode:1971Natur.233..277H. doi: 10.1038/233277a0 . PMID   16063321. S2CID   4151201.
  28. ↑ Folt, Brian; Garrison, Nicole; Guyer, Craig; Rodriguez, Juanita; Bond, Jason E. (1 May 2016). "Phylogeography and evolution of the Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 98: 97–110. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.01.016. PMID   26872531.
  29. ↑ Brandon, Ronald A.; Huheey, James E. (1975). "Diurnal Activity, Avian Predation, and the Question of Warning Coloration and Cryptic Coloration in Salamanders". Herpetologica. 31 (3): 252–255. JSTOR   3891585.
  30. ↑ Brandon, Ronald A.; Labanick, George M.; Huheey, James E. (1979). "Relative Palatability, Defensive Behavior, and Mimetic Relationships of Red Salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber), Mud Salamanders (Pseudotriton montanus), and Red Efts (Notophthalmus viridescens)". Herpetologica. 35 (4): 289–303. ISSN   0018-0831. JSTOR   3891961.
  31. ↑ Brandon, Ronald A.; Huheey, James E. (January 1981). "Toxicity in the plethodontid salamanders Pseudotriton ruber and Pseudotriton montanus (Amphibia, Caudata)". Toxicon. 19 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(81)90114-8. ISSN   0041-0101.
  32. ↑ Indiana Legislative Services Agency (2011), "312 IAC 9-5-4: Endangered species of reptiles and amphibians", Indiana Administrative Code, retrieved 28 Apr 2012
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