South Korea in the Vietnam War

Last updated

South Korean involvement in the Vietnam War
Part of the Vietnam War
TypeWar
Location
South Vietnam
ObjectiveTo support South Vietnam against Communist attacks
Date11 September 1964 – 23 March 1973
Executed byApproximately 320,000 military personnel, with an average of 48,000 per year.
Casualties5,099 killed
10,962 injured

The South Korean government, under the regime of Park Chung Hee, took an active role in the Vietnam War. South Korea's decision to join resulted from various underlying causes, including the development of US-South Korea relations, political exigencies, and the promise of economic aid from the United States. [1] Under the wartime alliance, the South Korean economy flourished, receiving tens of billions of dollars in grants, loans, subsidies, technology transfers, and preferential economic treatment. [2] From September 1964 to March 1973, South Korea sent some 350,000 troops to South Vietnam. The South Korean Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force all participated as an ally of the United States. The number of troops from South Korea was much greater than those from Australia and New Zealand, and second only to the U.S. military force for foreign troops located in South Vietnam. The military commander was Lieutenant general Chae Myung-shin of the South Korean army. Participation of Korean forces in the war included both non-combatant and combatant roles.

Contents

Causes

General Chae Myung-shin, the commander of South Korean forces in Vietnam Lieutenant General Chae Myung Shin.jpg
General Chae Myung-shin, the commander of South Korean forces in Vietnam

President Lyndon Johnson made a formal request to South Korea for noncombatant troops on May 1, 1964. [3] President Dwight D. Eisenhower rejected the previous offers because American public opinion would not support an American military presence in South Korea if the South Korean troops were fighting in Vietnam. [4] President John F. Kennedy rejected the previous offers because he hoped that the situation in Vietnam would not deteriorate to the point that South Korean troops were needed. [5] President Johnson, in comparison, was frustrated by the lack of international support for the war, and desperate for foreign forces. [6] The Johnson administration requested for foreign mercenary troops, and South Korea responded and quickly sent the first deployment of South Korean troops in 1964. [7]

Role

The first Korean units arrived in February 1965, in a brigade group known as Dove Force. These included engineers, a medical unit, military police, a navy LST, liaison staff, and other support personnel. Dove Force was deployed to the Biên Hòa region of South Vietnam, and helped build schools, roads and bridges. Medical teams are reported to have treated over 30,000 South Vietnamese civilians. The civilian operations in the early southern part of the campaign are reported to have had some success. [8] : 122–4  In addition to combat and non-combat forces, South Korea had sent around 100,000 civilian workers to South Vietnam, employed in technical and civilian tasks. [9]

In 1966 Korean combat forces were deployed to the Tuy Hòa valley and taking over security operations, where there was some positive evaluations of ROK's operational capability. [8] They are alleged to have had a casualty ratio of 24 to 1 during one operation in 1966. [10]

At the start of the Tet Offensive they were transferred to the Da Nang and Quảng Nam Province region. [11]

State Department reports state that though they were seen as effective in combat in the initial years, they had later withdrawn to the coast and were reluctant to undertake offensive operations. [12] [13] A passive role was not limited to just the Koreans; other armies including ANZAC and US forces were also kept at minimal combat following the Tet Offensive. [14] Part of the reason for this was the US announcement of withdrawal following political failures revealed by Tet, which caused the Korean military to lose reason, the Korean military's assessment received favourable reviews in the beginning and was passive in the second half. [8] The withdrawal process had negatively impacted Korean-US relations, despite economic benefits gained, [15] : 77–106  with Nixon and Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird considering simultaneous withdrawal from both Korea and Vietnam. [12]

In 1969 the South Korean army accounted for 9% of the foreign troops stationed in South Vietnam (US Army 475,200, ROK Army 49,755); by the end of 1972, they comprised 60.5% of foreign troops (US Army 24,200, ROK Army 37,438). [16] US Marine Aviation assets that supported the 2nd Marine Brigade withdrew completely in May 1971 while the combat role of Korean troops continued. As Vietnamization progressed the U.S., had to consider keeping support units in South Vietnam to support the two ROK Divisions. [15] : 99  Around the time of the Battle of An Khe Pass, ROK forces had more limited air-support, but remained until 1973 when all foreign troops withdrew due to the Paris Peace Accords. [17] [18] [19] The U.S. considered convincing the South Korean government to keep one of the divisions in South Vietnam into 1974 given the slow progress of development of Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) units in the area. [15] : 99 

Evaluation

American war planners are alleged to have leaned heavily on ROK forces, given their ability to carry out missions with considerable success. Koreans often outperformed other allied forces in Vietnam in lethality, organization, and professionalism. [20] [21] [22] Other commanders whom interacted with them were more critical and stated "Koreans made excessive demands for choppers and artillery support and that they stood down for too long after an operation. He equated the total two Korean divisions to "what one can expect from one good US Brigade". [8] : 152 

Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird publicly and openly questioned their usefulness in the conflict and had notable conflict with Korean leaders during the US Withdrawal period, questioning their use in the conflict and threatening to withdraw funding for them. [12] Some reports state that ARVN forces were instead effectively buffering Korean forces from the PAVN and providing actual security of most areas. [12] Other reports indicate civilians often left the Korean occupied areas. [23] [24] and that areas Korean forces operated in experienced significant unrest and strengthening of Vietcong control. [25] [24] One countering author claims that widespread success of South Korean operations spread among the Viet Cong guerrillas which are claimed by one author as having caused the Viet Cong to avoid engagements with South Korean forces. [26]

As a component of the joint-service MACV, the South Korean marines had a great deal of interaction with American Marines.  While the Vietnam War constituted the first military action on foreign soil for the South Korean marines since their formation, they claimed to have proven themselves to be highly skilled and capable warriors. All of the 2nd Marine Brigade's officers were trained in Quantico, Virginia or San Diego, California by the U.S. Marine Corps.

Overall, assessments of the ROK military vary greatly over time. The tactics of the ROK military changed to defensive and passive tactics including the establishment of siege-like bases, unlike aggressive tactics prior to the Tet Offensive. This passivity became even worse since the US 7th Division withdrew from South Korea. Since one of the reasons for participation was due to fears of US withdrawal from South Korea, when the United States was planning on reducing the number of US troops on the Korean Peninsula later on, public opinion and government opinion declined, and they became less willing to participate. [27] Other U.S. data generally positively assess the military activities of the Korean military. [8]

Non-combat and civilian support operation in the southern areas were well received, and included medical, antimalarial and surgery aid which also benefitted South Korea's public health knowledge. [28] During the Vietnam War, the South Korean military provided 3,353,364 public health services, 1,640 tons of food, 461,764 points of clothing, 6,406 farm tools, and 3,319 bridges [29] This hearts and minds campaign received positive reporting. [30]

South Koreans tried to support the cooperative civilians around the base, but the civilians in the town where Viet Cong was active were seen by Koreans as enemies, not civilians. This was particularly noticeable in the northern areas where the Vietcong was very active. [31] In other cases the Korean military and in particular engineering, medical and construction units put a great deal of effort into helping the people. [32] [33] [34]

Impact within South Korea

Memorial commemorating South Korean forces in the war weolnamcamjeonginyeomtab 1.jpg
Memorial commemorating South Korean forces in the war

In return for deploying South Korean combat troops in Vietnam, the U.S. paid for the financial costs associated with South Korean troops in Vietnam; promised not to withdraw American troops from South Korea without prior consultation with the South Korean government; helped modernize the South Korean army; provided substantial military aid to South Korea; and gave economic aid to South Korea, including a $150 million development loan. [35] The average salary for Korean servicemen in Vietnam was $37.50 per month, higher than the base pay of $1.60 per month back home although much of it was taken by the South Korean government. [36] Over the nine-year period of South Korean troop commitments to Vietnam, 40% of the country's overall export earnings during this period came from the money combat personnel were paid, making an average of $200 million each year. [37] The economic aid South Korea received from the U.S. was used to fund South Korea's industrialization efforts. [37] For some of South Korea's largest conglomerates, they can attribute their subsequent success and growth to the lucrative business contracts awarded to them by the U.S. military. [37] The total cost to the United States of paying for Korean participation was "peanuts compared to what it would be for a comparable number of Americans," but those payments are estimated to account for 4 percent of the GNP in 1967 and totalling more than one billion dollars. [38] [39] Under the wartime alliance, the South Korean economy flourished, receiving tens of billions of dollars in grants, loans, subsidies, technology transfers, and preferential economic treatment from America. [2]

Some Korean soldiers saw themselves as repaying the sacrifices Americans had made during the Korean War. Others saw it as an economic opportunity for combat pay and took on service to support their families. [40]

The wartime alliance between the U.S. and South Korea stabilized Park Chung Hee's regime, creating both short- and long-term effects for South Korea. [41] South Korea's economic success deterred the appeal and threat of communism domestically, furthering the stability of Park's rule. [42] Park took advantage of the alliance and used it to implement authoritarian policies in South Korea. He arrested his opposition, implemented martial law, and amended the constitution to allow himself to serve a third presidential term, bolstering the power of his regime. [43] The U.S. tolerated his undemocratic policies to ensure the stability of South Korea. [44] [45] [46]

Because of the alliances the U.S. had with Japan and South Korea, the U.S. played an important role in normalizing relations between South Korea and Japan, which brought long-lasting economic benefits to South Korea, receiving financial support from Japan and access to the Japanese economy. [47] An example is the establishment of POSCO steel mill.

The Korean government refused to provide additional compensation for their war veterans by establishing a "no duplicate reward" in the Constitution. Korean victims of Agent Orange have also not received compensation from the Korean government. [48] [49]

There are allegations of missing POWs from Korea. A total of 320,000 troops have been deployed, but only eight people have been officially recognized by the Korean government so far as missing in action. There are suspicions that the South Korean government intentionally ignored South Korean POWs captured by the North Vietnamese. It was believed that some of them were forcibly sent to North Korea, [50] with the South Korean government concluding that at least two captured soldiers had been moved there, being forced to deliver speeches on North Korean Radio. [51]

War crimes

Various civilian groups have accused the South Korean military of war crimes, while the Korean Ministry of Defense has denied all such accusations. [52]

Korean forces are alleged to have perpetrated the Binh Tai, Bình An/Tây Vinh, Bình Hòa, and Hà My massacres. Further incidents are alleged to have occurred in the villages of An Linh and Vinh Xuan in Phú Yên Province. [53]

In 1972, Vietnamese-speaking American Friends Service Committee members Diane and Michael Jones looked at where Korean forces operated in Quảng Ngãi and Quảng Nam provinces and alleged they had conducted 45 massacres, including 13 in which over 20 unarmed civilians were purportedly killed. [54] [55] The Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre is confirmed to have taken place within these two provinces. [55] A separate refugee study by RAND authored by Terry Rambo, reported in a 1970 New York Times story, conducted interviews in early to mid 1966 in Phu Yen Province which confirmed that widespread war crimes had occurred. These included systemic mass-killings and deliberate policies to massacre civilians, with murders running into the hundreds. [23] [24]

War crimes by Korean forces were covered by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky in Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda in the chapter "The 43+ My Lais of South Korean Mercenaries". They reported thousands of routine murders of primarily elderly, women, and children civilians as most men in these regions had been conscripted into the Viet Cong or the ARVN. Chomsky has raised allegations that U.S. leadership did not discourage Korean atrocities, but tolerated them. [56]

The Associated Press (AP) in April 2000 investigated the purported Bình An/Tây Vinh massacre and stated that it "was unable to independently confirm their [the Vietnamese victims'] claims" and "an additional 653 civilians were allegedly killed the same year by South Korean troops in neighboring Quang Ngai and Phu Yen provinces, according to provincial and local officials interviewed by the AP on a trip the government took two months to approve. As is routine with foreign reporters, several government escorts accompanied the AP staff. The AP was unable to search for documents that would back up the officials' allegations". The AP wrote that "neither the Pentagon nor the South Korean Defense Ministry would comment on the allegations or offer independent confirmation". [57] A Reuters story from January 2000 stated that:

Three local officials, including one who said he survived the alleged killings, spoke at length about the events in Binh Dinh. The officials, who declined to be identified, said that in early 1966, Korean troops entered what was then the Binh An commune, a collection of villages within Tay Son district that they believed was a Viet Cong stronghold. The Koreans were intent on flushing out opposing forces, but civilians bore the brunt of their actions, the officials said. An official at Tay Son's Communist Party history unit said the attacks began in early 1966 and culminated in a massacre of 380 people on Feb. 26, 1966, at a place called Go Dai" and that "a People's Committee official in Tay Son district also confirmed the details, saying 1,200 people were killed. A government official in Hanoi said central authorities had later investigated what happened at Binh Dinh and compiled detailed reports, which showed more than 1,000 people were killed during the period, about 380 of them at Go Dai. However, when asked for comment and to confirm the alleged killings, Vietnam's foreign ministry said it did not want to dwell on the matter."

"South Korean troops committed crimes against Vietnamese people. With humanitarian and peaceful neighbourly traditions, it is Vietnam's policy to close the past..." the ministry said in a statement in response to questions. [58]

When Korean forces were deployed to I Corps in 1968, U.S. Marine General Rathvon M. Tompkins stated that "whenever the Korean Marines received fire or think [they got] fired on from a village... they'd divert from their march and go over and completely level the village. It would be a lesson to [the Vietnamese]". General Robert E. Cushman Jr. stated several years later that "we had a big problem with atrocities committed by them which I sent down to Saigon." [59] presumably in reference to the Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre. [11]

Koreans have claimed that war crimes committed by their forces stemmed from orders by Park Chung Hee to minimise casualties through practices such as hostage-taking. Furthermore, the brutality of the South Koreans was due to many officers being Japanese-trained and implementing the same doctrines used during the Korean War. [60]

Punishment for some war crimes did occur. The Korean Army responded to the case of General Seo Kyung-seok, decorated for winning a victory but found to have beaten a prisoner, by revoking his award. [61]

War crimes first reported in the 1990s by Ku Su-jeong had shocked Korean society. [62] These reports came just as the newly democratized South Korea was facing pressures from civic groups to recognize the mass killings of South Korean civilians by ROK forces during the Korean War such as the Bodo League massacres. [63] Further testimonies and extensive accounts in the South Korean media emerged from South Korean Vietnam War veterans, and have caused considerable debate and re-assessment within South Korea about its role in the conflict. [64] Korean civil groups have discussed the issue considerably, and calls have been made for a Korean inquiry, in line with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on massacres committed by government forces during the Korean War, known as the People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War. [65]

South Korean civic groups have created a statue on Jeju Island dedicated to Vietnam War victims at a site commemorating victims of the Jeju uprising. [66]

Impact on South Korea and Vietnam relations

People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War held by Minbyun and the Korea-Vietnam Peace Foundation. People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War 008.jpg
People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War held by Minbyun and the Korea-Vietnam Peace Foundation.

The issue of war crimes has not been an aspect of foreign relations between the governments of Korea and Vietnam both when the countries were opening up relations and to the present day, unlike the role historical issues have played in Korean-Japanese relations. [52] Much of this issue is instead driven by civic groups in both countries. In April 2020, a survivor of the Phong Nhi massacre alongside the Korea-Vietnam Peace Foundation filed a civil lawsuit in the court of South Korea against the Korean government in an effort to have a fact-finding mission convened. The Korean Defense Ministry in its response has stated that its own records do not support allegations of the lawsuit, and has called for a joint investigation by the Korean and Vietnamese governments. [67] Survivors of the Phong Nhi massacre have also traveled to South Korea to give accounts of events to various groups. [68]

Apologetic statements from President Kim Dae-jung [69] and Moon Jae-in [70] have been given, short of a full public apology. Apologies for war crimes has become a political issue within South Korean politics, as President Moon Jae-in had planned on making a unilateral official apology but stopped short due to widespread opposition from prominent conservatives within South Korea. [71] The recent political interest in South Korea for an official apology is contextualized within the ongoing trade war and diplomatic rifts between Japan and Korea over a South Korean court having ordered compensation for forced labor from a Japanese company. [72]

The issue is rarely acknowledged or discussed by the Vietnamese government or state-controlled media following normalization of relations, though in a rare statement the Vietnamese government did oppose the "commemoration of mercenaries" when South Korean President Moon Jae-in honoured the 50th anniversary of South Korean servicemen who had fought in South Vietnam on South Korea's Memorial Day in 2017. [73] [74]

The issue around children conceived through wartime affairs and rape known as Lai Dai Han remains, like controversies around comfort women. Civic groups in Vietnam have campaigned for recognition of the issue and an apology by the Korean government. [75] Most were ostracised and neglected by Vietnamese society following the war. [76] [77] Lai Dai Han and their families faced mistreatment following North Vietnam's victory for allegedly siding with opposing forces, including one rape victim's father being beaten to death by the communist regime shortly after the war ended. Both the Korean and Vietnamese governments have sidelined or ignored this issue, and requests by the BBC to make a documentary was turned down by the Vietnamese government. [78]

Order of battle

Battles and operations involving South Korea

Media

In 1992, Korean film director Chung Ji-young directed a War film titled White Badge . It follows two veterans who fought in the Vietnam War and had seen the horrors of war through a series of flashbacks. 2004 horror war film R-Point depicts a squad of eight soldiers tasked with extracting a missing platoon that was sent to R-Point in an abandoned French plantation, only to find out that the building is being haunted by the spirits of the deceased. In 2008, Lee Joon-ik produced a drama war film titled Sunny which follows a young woman who joins a band in order to find her husband who is sent off fighting in Vietnam. The 2020 TV drama It's Okay to Not Be Okay depicts a veteran named Gan Pil-ong suffering from PTSD. He expresses remorse for obeying orders to massacre Vietnamese children.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Korean War</span> War between North and South Korea, 1950–1953

The Korean War was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea and South Korea and their allies. North Korea was supported by the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while South Korea was supported by the United Nations Command (UNC) led by the United States. Fighting ended in 1953 with an armistice, with no treaty signed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Republic of Korea Armed Forces</span> Combined military forces of South Korea

The Republic of Korea Armed Forces, also known as the ROK Armed Forces, are the armed forces of South Korea. The ROK Armed Forces is one of the largest and most powerful standing armed forces in the world with a reported personnel strength of 3,600,000 in 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vietnam War</span> Cold War conflict in Southeast Asia from 1955 to 1975

The Vietnam War was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and a major conflict of the Cold War. While the war was officially fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam, the north was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other countries in the Eastern Bloc, while the south was supported by the US and anti-communist allies. This made the conflict a proxy war between the US and Soviet Union. Direct US military involvement lasted from 1965 until its withdrawal in 1973. The fighting spilled over into the Laotian and Cambodian civil wars, which ended with all three countries becoming communist in 1975.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vietnam War casualties</span> Civilian and military deaths during the Second Indochina War

Estimates of casualties of the Vietnam War vary widely. Estimates can include both civilian and military deaths in North and South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John A. Wickham Jr.</span> United States Army general (1928–2024)

John Adams Wickham Jr. was a United States Army general who served as the United States Army Chief of Staff from 1983 to 1987.

Operation Hong Kil Dong (홍길동작전) was the largest South Korean operation of the Vietnam War. The 48-day-long operation was claimed by South Korea as a major success as they claimed to have thwarted People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN)/Viet Cong (VC) infiltration into friendly areas. The results of the operation were a claim of a kill ratio of 24:1 in the Korean's report primarily killed by heavy artillery, aerial bombardment and B-52 Arclight strikes : 638 PAVN/VC. 98 crew-served and 359 individual weapons were found in the aftermath.

The Battle of Trà Bình was fought in the Trà Bình village, Trà Bồng District, on February 14–15, 1967 during the Vietnam War. The 11th Company, 3rd Battalion, 2nd Marine Brigade defeated a regimental-sized attack in four hours of close quarters combat. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and Viet Cong (VC) penetrated the company's perimeter on two occasions. The 11th Company Marines fought using every weapon available; much of the fighting was hand-to-hand. Two U.S. Marines assigned to Sub Unit One, 1st Air Naval Gunfire Liaison Company (ANGLICO), Lance Corporals Jim Porta and Dave Long, were instrumental to the company's success, killing enemy infiltrators, coordinating air support, joining a counterattack to restore the perimeter and aiding the wounded.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States in the Vietnam War</span>

The involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War began in the 1950s and greatly escalated in 1965 until its withdrawal in 1973. The U.S. military presence in Vietnam peaked in April 1969, with 543,000 military personnel stationed in the country. By the end of the U.S. involvement, more than 3.1 million Americans had been stationed in Vietnam, and 58,279 had been killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capital Mechanized Infantry Division</span> Military unit of South Korea

The Capital Mechanized Infantry Division, also known as Fierce Tiger Division, is currently one of the six mechanized infantry divisions in the Republic of Korea Army. It is part of the VII Maneuver Corps, tasked with covering approaches to Seoul from North Korea and counterattack operations.

The Many Flags campaign was an initiative by United States President Lyndon Johnson to get U.S. allies in Asia and the Pacific to participate in the Vietnam War in support of South Vietnam. While it served a military purpose, the program was also a propaganda effort by Johnson to enlist Free World forces in the Cold War against communism. The U.S. supported the Allied forces through direct monetary aid, military contracts, logistic aid, and various forms of economic compensation.

Lai Đại Hàn is a term used in the Vietnamese language to refer to a person who was born to a Vietnamese mother and a South Korean father during the Vietnam War. The births of these people occurred because of South Korean involvement in the Vietnam War; approximately 350,000 South Korean soldiers were deployed to South Vietnam between 1964 and 1973. It is a politically significant term with regard to South Korea–Vietnam relations and carries a heavy social stigma due to the fact that wartime sexual violence was endemic in Vietnam when these people were conceived. An unknown number of Lai Đại Hàn births were the result of pregnancies from rape. The community has faced unequal and discriminatory treatment from the Vietnamese government, while the South Korean government has refused to acknowledge and address the rape of Vietnamese women during the conflict.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue House raid</span> 1968 North Korean assassination attempt on South Korean President Park Chung-hee

The Blue House raid, also known in South Korea as the 21 January Incident, was a raid launched by North Korean commandos in an attempt to assassinate President of South Korea Park Chung Hee in his residence at the Blue House in Seoul, on 21 January, 1968. A 31-man team of the Korean People's Army (KPA) infiltrated the DMZ but was intercepted by police near the presidential residence. In the ensuing pursuit, all but two commandos were killed; one was captured, and one fled back to North Korea. South Korean casualties totaled 26 killed and 66 wounded, including about 24 civilians; four Americans also were killed. Park was unharmed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2nd Marine Division (South Korea)</span> Unit of the Republic of Korea Marine Corps

The 2nd Marine Infantry Division, also known as Blue Dragon Division or more literally the Aqua (color) Dragon Division, is an infantry division of the Republic of Korea Marine Corps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre</span> 1968 killing of Vietnamese villagers reportedly by South Korean marines

The Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre was a massacre of unarmed civilians in the villages of Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất, Điện Bàn District of Quảng Nam Province in South Vietnam reported to have been conducted by the 2nd Marine Brigade of the Republic of Korea Marines (ROKMC) during the Vietnam War on 12 February 1968.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bình An/Tây Vinh massacre</span>

The Bình An / Tây Vinh massacre was a series of massacres alleged to have been conducted by the Capital Division of the South Korean Army between February 12, 1966 and March 17, 1966 of 1,200 unarmed civilians in the Go Dai village and other areas in the rural commune of Bình An/ Tây Vinh area, Tây Sơn District of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bình Tai massacre</span> 1966 purported killing of civilians by South Korean forces in South Vietnam

The Bình mai Massacre was a massacre allegedly perpetrated by South Korean forces on 9 October 1966 of 29–168 civilians in Bình Tai village of Bình Định Province in South Vietnam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chae Myung-shin</span> South Korean general (1926–2013)

Chae Myung-shin was a South Korean army officer who commanded South Korean military forces in the Vietnam War. He was also the co-founder of the Korean Taekwondo Association.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Korea–Vietnam relations</span> Bilateral relations

South Korea and Vietnam established formal diplomatic relations on 22 December 1992, though the two countries had already had various historical contacts long before that. According to Vietnamese Prime Minister Phan Văn Khải, "The Republic of Korea is a very important partner of Vietnam and a good model for Vietnam to expand cooperation and exchange experiences during its development process." On 2022, South Korea and Vietnam upgraded their relationship in to "comprehensive strategic partnership", became the fourth country after China, Russia and India to do so.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War</span> Citizens tribunal organised by South Korean social organizations

The People's Tribunal on War Crimes by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War was a citizen's tribunal organised by South Korean social organizations including Minbyun, Korea-Vietnam Peace Foundation, The Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan during 21–22 April 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International participation in the Vietnam War</span> Aspect of the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War involved many countries across the world. North Vietnam received support from the Eastern Bloc, while South Vietnam was generally supported by nations of the Western Bloc.

References

  1. ↑ Article title
  2. 1 2 Tae Yang Kwak (Spring–Summer 2003). "The Nixon Doctrine and the Yusin Reforms: American Foreign Policy, the Vietnam War, and the Rise of Authoritarianism in Korea, 1968—1973". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 12 (1/2): 33–57. doi:10.1163/187656103793645315. JSTOR   23613179. Archived from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  3. ↑ Kimiya, Tadashi (2011). Reassessing the Park Chung Hee Era, 1961-1979: Development, Political Thought, Democracy & Cultural Influence. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. p. 406. ISBN   9780295991405.
  4. ↑ Lee, Min-Yong (2013). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 406. ISBN   9780674072312.
  5. ↑ Blackburn, Robert M. (1994). Mercenaries and Lyndon Johnson's "more flags": the hiring of Korean, Filipino, and Thai soldiers in the Vietnam War. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland Publishing. p. 41. ISBN   9780899509310.
  6. ↑ Kwak, Tae Yang (22 January 2024). "The Nixon Doctrine and the Yusin Reforms: American Foreign Policy, the Vietnam War, and the Rise of Authoritarianism in Korea, 1968—1973". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 12 (1/2): 33–57. doi:10.1163/187656103793645315. JSTOR   23613179.
  7. ↑ Kwak, Tae Yang (22 January 2024). "The Nixon Doctrine and the Yusin Reforms: American Foreign Policy, the Vietnam War, and the Rise of Authoritarianism in Korea, 1968—1973". The Journal of American-East Asian Relations. 12 (1/2): 33–57. doi:10.1163/187656103793645315. JSTOR   23613179.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Larsen, Stanley (1975). Vietnam Studies – Allied Participation in Vietnam. U.S. Army center of Military History. ISBN   9781782893714. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2020.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  9. ↑ Lee, Jin-kyung (2010). Service Economies: Militarism, Sex Work, and Migrant Labor in South Korea. U of Minnesota Press. p. 37. ISBN   9780816651252. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  10. ↑ "The United States Army | United States Army Pacific". Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  11. 1 2 Shulimson, Jack (1997). U.S. Marines in Vietnam: The Defining Year, 1968. History and Museums Division, Headquarters United States Marine Corps. p. 614. ISBN   9781786256331.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Hunt, Richard A. (2015). Melvin Laird and the Foundation of the Post-Vietnam Military, 1969–1973. Government Printing Office. pp. 352–355. ISBN   9780160927577. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  13. ↑ Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XIX, Pt. 1, Korea, 1969–1972. Government Printing Office. p. 242. ISBN   9780160876424. Archived from the original on 13 July 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  14. ↑ Neale, Jonathan (2 July 2018). "The American War: Vietnam 1960–1975". Bookmarks. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018– via National Library of Australia (new catalog).
  15. 1 2 3 Benjamin Engel (Summer 2016). "Viewing Seoul from Saigon: Withdrawal from the Vietnam War and the Yushin Regime". The Journal of Northeast Asian History. 13 (1). Archived from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  16. ↑ Eckhardt, Fuchs (4 December 2017). A New Modern History of East Asia. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 334. ISBN   9783737007085. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  17. ↑ "미군과 함께 철수했다면 전사자 줄었을 텐데". 17 October 2014. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  18. ↑ "국가기록원 > 기록정보 콘텐츠 > 국정분야별 주제콘텐츠 > 국정분야별 목록 > 외교 > 대아시아 외교> 동남아시아 외교협력> 주월한국군 철수". Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  19. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ↑ MAJ Michael, H. Liscano Jr. (2006). Multinational Force Integration: The ROK Army's Integration with the US Army in the Vietnam War (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2020.
  21. ↑ "A Perspective on Korea's Participation in the Vietnam War". The Asian Institute for Policy Studies. 9 April 2013. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  22. ↑ "A Perspective on Korea's Participation in the Vietnam War". en.asaninst.org. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  23. 1 2 Smith, Robert M. (10 January 1970). "Vietnam Killings Laid to Koreans". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  24. 1 2 3 Elliott, Mai (8 February 2010). RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era. Rand Corporation. pp. 187–193. ISBN   9780833049155. Archived from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  25. ↑ Goure, Leon; Russo, A.J. (1966). "Some Findings of the Viet Cong Motivation and Morale Study: June–December 1965" (PDF). RAND Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  26. ↑ Yi, J (2004). MCMAP and the Marine Warrior Ethos. Military Review. p. 17.
  27. ↑ "진짜 배후는 주한미군·한국군 동시감축 계획이었나". 10 January 2014. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  28. ↑ Harrison, Mark; Yim, Sung Vin (July 2017). "War on Two Fronts: The Fight against Parasites in Korea and Vietnam". Medical History. 61 (3): 401–423. doi:10.1017/mdh.2017.35. ISSN   0025-7273. PMC   5471985 . PMID   28604294.
  29. ↑ "군사편찬연구소". medcmd.mil.kr. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  30. ↑ "The Independent-Record from Helena, Montana on June 13, 1966 · Page 4". 13 June 1966. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020– via Newspapers.com.
  31. ↑ Lee, Gyu Bong (2011). Sorry! Vietnam. pp. 202, 203.
  32. ↑ "군사편찬연구소". medcmd.mil.kr. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  33. ↑ "군사편찬연구소". medcmd.mil.kr. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  34. ↑ "군사편찬연구소". medcmd.mil.kr. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  35. ↑ Lee, Min-Yong (2013). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 413. ISBN   9780674072312.
  36. ↑ Korea's Amazing Century: From Kings to Satellites. James F. Larson. p. 52. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  37. 1 2 3 Lee, Jin-kyung (2010). Service Economies: Militarism, Sex Work, and Migrant Labor in South Korea. U of Minnesota Press. p. 41. ISBN   9780816651252. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  38. ↑ Rowen, Henry (1998). Behind East Asian Growth: The Political and Social Foundations of Prosperity. Psychology Press. ISBN   978-0415165198. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  39. ↑ Nancy Abelmann; et al. (2009). Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0674020030. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  40. ↑ Kwon, Heonik (10 July 2017). "Opinion – Vietnam's South Korean Ghosts". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
  41. ↑ Lee, Min-Yong (2013). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 405–429. ISBN   9780674072312.
  42. ↑ Kimiya, Tadashi (2011). Reassessing the Park Chung Hee Era, 1961-1979: Development, Political Thought, Democracy & Cultural Influence. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. p. 74. ISBN   9780295991405.
  43. ↑ Lee, Min-Yong (2013). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 419. ISBN   9780674072312.
  44. ↑ "Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State". Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 30 May 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  45. ↑ "Telegram From the Embassy in Korea to the Department of State". Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  46. ↑ Lee, Min-Yong (2013). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 403–429. ISBN   9780674072312.
  47. ↑ Kimiya, Tadashi (2011). Reassessing the Park Chung Hee Era, 1961-1979: Development, Political Thought, Democracy & Cultural Influence. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. pp. 70–74. ISBN   9780295991405.
  48. ↑ "대법, 베트남전 참전용사 고엽제 후유증 39명만 인정". OhmyNews . 12 July 2013. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  49. ↑ "A Proposal to Change Welfare Policy Principles for Agent Orange Exposed Korean Veterans". CiteSeerX   10.1.1.882.6299 .{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  50. ↑ "포로 없다더니…베트남 파병 장병이 평양에 나타나". 12 December 2014. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
  51. ↑ Sung-ki, Jung (2009). "Vietnam War Soldier Is POW, Not Defector to Pyongyang". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  52. 1 2 "The Forgotten History of South Korean Massacres in Vietnam". thediplomat.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  53. ↑ "Apocalypse Then". Newsweek. 9 April 2000. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  54. ↑ Baldwin, Frank; Jones, Diane; Jones, Michael. America's rented troops: South Koreans in Vietnam. American Friends Service Committee. Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  55. 1 2 Journal, The Asia Pacific (4 June 2007). "Anatomy of US and South Korean Massacres in the Vietnamese Year of the Monkey, 1968 | The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus". apjjf.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  56. ↑ Chomsky, Noam; Herman, Edward (1973). Counter-Revolutionary Violence:Bloodbaths in fact and propaganda (PDF). Warner Modular Publications. pp. 29–30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  57. ↑ Paul Alexander (9 April 2000). "Villagers recall S. Korean atrocities in Viet War Troops massacred 1,600 civilians in all, survivors say". Deseret News . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  58. ↑ Dean Yates (20 January 2000). "Vietnam memorial recalls massacre by Korean troops". Reuters News Agency. Archived from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
  59. ↑ Griffiths, James. "The 'forgotten' My Lai: South Korea's Vietnam War massacres". CNN. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  60. ↑ Miyoshi, Sheila (2007). Ruptured Histories: War, Memory, and the Post-Cold War in Asia. Harvard University Press. p. 299. ISBN   978-067402470-0. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  61. ↑ 서, 경석 (29 June 2013). 전투감각. 샘터(샘터사). ISBN   9788946412804. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2020– via Google Books.
  62. ↑ "Reckoning with Korea's role in Vietnam War massacres". Korea JoongAng Daily . 24 April 2018. Archived from the original on 26 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  63. ↑ "People's Tribunal on War Crimes Committed by South Korean Troops during the Vietnam War | The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus". apjjf.org. 15 June 2019. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  64. ↑ Armstrong, Charles K. (1 September 2001). "America's Korea, Korea's Vietnam". Critical Asian Studies. 33 (4): 527–540. doi:10.1080/146727101760107415. S2CID   144205767.
  65. ↑ "Citizens' court to investigate Vietnam War atrocities committed by South Korean troops". Archived from the original on 21 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  66. ↑ "Vietnam pieta: a last lullaby for peace in Vietnam, on Jeju Island". The Hankyoreh . Archived from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  67. ↑ "Survivor of Korean troops' civilian killings in Vietnam files suit against Korean government". The Korea Herald . 21 April 2020. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  68. ↑ "Vietnam War massacre survivors making their first visit to South Korea". Archived from the original on 28 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  69. ↑ "The South Korean Vietnam War experience". The Hankyoreh . 8 July 2013. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  70. ↑ Choi Ha-young (15 November 2017). "Moon's apology ignored in Vietnam". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  71. ↑ "Moon's apology ignored in Vietnam". koreatimes. 15 November 2017. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  72. ↑ "Moon faces growing calls to investigate South Korean war crimes in Vietnam". South China Morning Post. 18 April 2019. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  73. ↑ "Hanoi objects to glorification of S.Korean mercenaries engaging in war in Vietnam". Tuoi Tre News. 13 June 2017. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  74. ↑ "Remarks by MOFA Spokesperson Le Thi Thu Hang on Viet Nam's view on the June 6 remarks by President Moon Jae-in of the Republic of Korea in which he honored Korean veterans who fought various wars oversea, including the war in Viet Nam". www.mofa.gov.vn. Archived from the original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  75. ↑ "Women raped by Korean soldiers during Vietnam war still awaiting apology". The Guardian . 19 January 2019. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  76. ↑ "The Vietnamese women whose mothers were raped in wartime seek justice for a lifetime of pain and prejudice". The Independent. 11 September 2017. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  77. ↑ "OpEdNews-South Korea's War Crimes Still Haunt Vietnam". OpEdNews. September 2017. Archived from the original on 21 May 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  78. ↑ "1968 - The year that haunts hundreds of women". BBC News . Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  79. ↑ 베트남전쟁시 한국군의 해·공군 및 특수작전
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.