Stephen W. Scherer

Last updated

Stephen W. Scherer
Stephen W Scherer April2011.jpg
April 2011
Born
Stephen Wayne Scherer

(1964-01-05) January 5, 1964 (age 60)
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
Alma mater University of Waterloo (B.Sc.)
University of Toronto (M.Sc., Ph.D.)
Spouse
Jo-Anne Herbrick
​
(m. 2002)​
Children2

Stephen Wayne "Steve" Scherer (born January 5, 1964) is a Canadian scientist who currently serves as the Chief of Research at The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids) and distinguished University Professor at the University of Toronto. [1] He obtained his PhD at the University of Toronto under Professor Lap-chee Tsui. Together they founded the Centre for Applied Genomics (TCAG). He is a Senior Fellow of Massey College at the University of Toronto. [2] In 2014, he was named an esteemed Clarivate (previously Thomson Reuters) Citation laureate in Physiology or Medicine for the “Discovery of large-scale gene copy number variation and its association with specific diseases.” [3]

Contents

Background

Scherer was born in Windsor, Ontario, and attended Riverside High School. He played competitive hockey and baseball winning provincial and national championships. [4] He completed his Honours Science Degree at the University of Waterloo, Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Toronto. [5]

Research

Scherer has co-published over 700 scholarly papers and book chapters. [6] He has been on the Thomson Reuters Highly Cited Researcher and World’s Most Influential Scientific Minds list (2015-2018). [7] [8] His Google Scholar h-index=164; 134,131 citations. [9] In 2023, with Ronald D. Cohn and Ada Hamosh, he edited Thompson & Thompson Genetics and Genomics in Medicine, 9th Edition, Elsevier Publishers. [10]

Chromosome mapping  

From 1988 to 2003 with Lap-Chee Tsui, Scherer led studies of human chromosome 7, in particular in the mapping phase of the Human Genome Project. [11] [12] [13] Through collaborative research, genes involved in holoprosencephaly, [14] [15] renal carcinoma, [16] Williams syndrome, [17] [18] sacral agenesis, [19] citrullinemia, [20] renal tubular acidosis [21] and others were identified. His group also discovered the largest gene in the genome. [22] The sum of this work, including contributions from scientists worldwide and J. Craig Venter's Celera Genomics, generated a map and sequence of human chromosome 7. [23] In other chromosome studies with Berge Minassian, disease genes causing severe forms of epilepsy were identified. [24] [25] [26]

Discovery of frequent gene copy number variation (CNV) events

Scherer's research contributed to the description of genome-wide copy number variations (CNVs) of genes, including defining CNV as a highly abundant form of human genetic variation. [27] Previous theory held that humans were 99.9% DNA identical with the small difference in variation almost entirely accounted for by some 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) per genome. [28] [29] [30] Larger genomic CNV changes involving losses or gains of thousands or millions of nucleotides encompassing one or several genes were thought to be exceptionally rare, and almost always involved in disease. [31] Scherer's observations of frequent CNV events found in the genomes of all cells in every individual, co-published with Canadian-Korean scientist Charles Lee working at Harvard in 2004, [32] opened a new window for studies of natural genetic variation, evolution and disease. Scherer founded the Database of Genomic Variants, a public database utilized by clinical laboratories around the world to interpret CNV and structural variation data in diagnostics. [33] Scherer, Lee and collaborators led by Matthew Hurles at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, as well as scientists at the University of Tokyo and Affymetrix Corp then generated CNV maps of human DNA revealing the structural properties, mechanisms of formation, and population genetics of this ubiquitous form of natural variation. [34] [35] These studies discovered that CNVs number in the thousands per genome and encompass at least ten times more DNA letters than SNPs, revealing a 'dynamic patchwork' structure of chromosomes. These findings were further substantiated through work with J. Craig Venter's team, [36] which contributed to the completion of the genome sequence of an individual. [37]

Autism-associated CNVs and genes

From 2003-2010, Scherer and collaborators went on to discover numerous disease-associated CNVs, and the corresponding disease-susceptibility genes in upwards of 10% of individuals with autism spectrum disorder. [38] [39] [40] These discoveries have led to broadly available tests facilitating early diagnostic information for autism. [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52]

Similar discoveries to those made in autism were also found in schizophrenia, intellectual disability and other brain disorders (with often the same genes/CNVs involved), thereby establishing a new paradigm to explain how complex human behavioral conditions can have a genetic (biological) basis. With Jacob Vorstman, Christian Schaaf and colleagues, Scherer developed the EAGLE (Evaluation of Autism Gene Link Evidence), which is a highly utilized resource in diagnostic testing for autism. [53]

Determining the genome architecture underlying autism

Scherer has led the Autism Speaks MSSNG project, [54] which uses whole genome sequencing to decode the DNA of thousands of families having a diagnosis of autism. The research underpinned the identification of >100 genes and CNVs involved in autism providing explanations of why autism has occurred for approximately 5-20% of families. [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] These discoveries have enabled faster and more precise diagnoses, early intervention and genetic counselling and have led to the identification of new molecular pathways for the development of therapeutics. [62] [63] [64] [65] In 2022, Scherer’s team published a comprehensive description of the genomic architecture in autism using whole genome sequencing data available to facilitate research studies in autism. [66]

Genome science, data and public policy infrastructure

Scherer co-founded the TCAG genome centre at SickKids in 1998. In 2015 with Marco Marra and Steven Jones at the University of British Columbia and Mark Lathrop at McGill University, the three major Canadian genome centres came together as CGEn, which serves as a Major Science Initiative of the Canada Foundation of Innovation. [67] For the 150th anniversary of Canada (2017), he started the CanSeq150 Project to sequence 150 genomes of species most relevant to Canada’s culture/environment/conservation; notable species completed include many of the “canadensis” members such as the Canadian beaver and Canadian wolverine. [68] [69] [70] Canseq 150 is now part of the Canadian Biogenome Project, an international effort aiming to sequence the genetic material for all complex life on earth. [71] CGEn also led the Covid-19 host genome sequencing project, which completed 10,000 Canadian genomes in April 2022. [72]

Scherer and colleagues launched the Personal Genome Project Canada in 2007, a resource of data that supports evaluation of whole genome sequencing in medicine and public health. [73] [74] These experiences along Scherer’s advocacy with the Canadian Coalition for Genetic Fairness helped to establish Canada’s Genetic Non-Discrimination Act, [75] which passed into law on May 4, 2017. He is also Editor-in-Chief of the scientific journal npj Genomic Medicine, which was co-founded in 2016 with Dr. Magdalena Skipper the current Editor-in-Chief of Nature. [76]

Media and special presentations

Scherer’s discoveries have appeared in the Globe and Mail, New York Times, Washington Post, The Independent, Time, Newsweek, Scientific American and many other periodicals. He has appeared on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), PBS Newshour, TVO Agenda, and other national TV, radio, and media, including Quirks and Quarks, explaining scientific discoveries. [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] His research was featured in Roger Martin's book The Design of Business, [86] Bob Wright’s autobiography the Wright Stuff: from NBC to Autism Speaks, [87] Steve Silberman’s NeuroTribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity, [88] amongst others. In 2013, he spoke at the Canadian Broadcast Glenn Gould Studio: ‘Cracking the Autism Enigma’, [89] and in 2015 was a special guest speaker at the United Nations, New York for World Autism Awareness Day. [90] He has been featured the Genome Giants series of interviews. [91] He served as the scientific consultant for two documentaries, the MediCinema Film creation Cracking the Code, the continuing saga of genetics, [92] and the Gemini Award-winning documentary, After Darwin by GalaFilms-Telefilm Canada. [93] He also hosts the SickKids Discovery Dialogues which takes attendees behind the scenes of research to discuss their research and the path to scientific discovery. [94]

Honours

Scherer holds the Northbridge Chair in Paediatric Research at SickKids and the University of Toronto, [112] and previously held GlaxoSmithKline-CIHR Endowed Chair in Genetics and Genomics from SickKids and the University of Toronto. [113] He also holds three Honorary Doctorates from the University of Waterloo (2017), Western University (2018) and the University of Windsor (2001). [114] [115] [116] [117]

Related Research Articles

Gene duplication is a major mechanism through which new genetic material is generated during molecular evolution. It can be defined as any duplication of a region of DNA that contains a gene. Gene duplications can arise as products of several types of errors in DNA replication and repair machinery as well as through fortuitous capture by selfish genetic elements. Common sources of gene duplications include ectopic recombination, retrotransposition event, aneuploidy, polyploidy, and replication slippage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-nucleotide polymorphism</span> Single nucleotide in genomic DNA at which different sequence alternatives exist

In genetics and bioinformatics, a single-nucleotide polymorphism is a germline substitution of a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome. Although certain definitions require the substitution to be present in a sufficiently large fraction of the population, many publications do not apply such a frequency threshold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Comparative genomics</span> Field of biological research

Comparative genomics is a branch of biological research that examines genome sequences across a spectrum of species, spanning from humans and mice to a diverse array of organisms from bacteria to chimpanzees. This large-scale holistic approach compares two or more genomes to discover the similarities and differences between the genomes and to study the biology of the individual genomes. Comparison of whole genome sequences provides a highly detailed view of how organisms are related to each other at the gene level. By comparing whole genome sequences, researchers gain insights into genetic relationships between organisms and study evolutionary changes. The major principle of comparative genomics is that common features of two organisms will often be encoded within the DNA that is evolutionarily conserved between them. Therefore, Comparative genomics provides a powerful tool for studying evolutionary changes among organisms, helping to identify genes that are conserved or common among species, as well as genes that give unique characteristics of each organism. Moreover, these studies can be performed at different levels of the genomes to obtain multiple perspectives about the organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heritability of autism</span> The rate at which autism is inherited

The heritability of autism is the proportion of differences in expression of autism that can be explained by genetic variation; if the heritability of a condition is high, then the condition is considered to be primarily genetic. Autism has a strong genetic basis. Although the genetics of autism are complex, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is explained more by multigene effects than by rare mutations with large effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Copy number variation</span> Repeated DNA variation between individuals

Copy number variation (CNV) is a phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated and the number of repeats in the genome varies between individuals. Copy number variation is a type of structural variation: specifically, it is a type of duplication or deletion event that affects a considerable number of base pairs. Approximately two-thirds of the entire human genome may be composed of repeats and 4.8–9.5% of the human genome can be classified as copy number variations. In mammals, copy number variations play an important role in generating necessary variation in the population as well as disease phenotype.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of autism</span> Proposed causes of autism

Many causes of autism, including environmental and genetic factors, have been recognized or proposed, but understanding of the theory of causation of autism is incomplete. Attempts have been made to incorporate the known genetic and environmental causes into a comprehensive causative framework. ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by impairments in communicative ability and social interaction, as well as restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities not suitable for the individual's developmental stage. The severity of symptoms and functional impairment vary between individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">22q13 deletion syndrome</span> Rare genetic syndrome

22q13 deletion syndrome, known as Phelan–McDermid syndrome (PMS), is a genetic disorder caused by deletions or rearrangements on the q terminal end of chromosome 22. Any abnormal genetic variation in the q13 region that presents with significant manifestations (phenotype) typical of a terminal deletion may be diagnosed as 22q13 deletion syndrome. There is disagreement among researchers as to the exact definition of 22q13 deletion syndrome. The Developmental Synaptopathies Consortium defines PMS as being caused by SHANK3 mutations, a definition that appears to exclude terminal deletions. The requirement to include SHANK3 in the definition is supported by many but not by those who first described 22q13 deletion syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1000 Genomes Project</span> International research effort on genetic variation

The 1000 Genomes Project (1KGP), taken place from January 2008 to 2015, was an international research effort to establish the most detailed catalogue of human genetic variation at the time. Scientists planned to sequence the genomes of at least one thousand anonymous healthy participants from a number of different ethnic groups within the following three years, using advancements in newly developed technologies. In 2010, the project finished its pilot phase, which was described in detail in a publication in the journal Nature. In 2012, the sequencing of 1092 genomes was announced in a Nature publication. In 2015, two papers in Nature reported results and the completion of the project and opportunities for future research.

The Centre for Applied Genomics is a genome centre in the Research Institute of The Hospital for Sick Children, and is affiliated with the University of Toronto. TCAG also operates as a Science and Technology Innovation Centre of Genome Canada, with an emphasis on next-generation sequencing (NGS) and bioinformatics support. Research at TCAG focuses on the genetic and genomic basis of human variability, health and disease, including research on the genetics of autism spectrum disorder and structural variation of the human genome. The centre is located in the Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning in downtown Toronto, Canada.

Complete Genomics is a life sciences company that has developed and commercialized a DNA sequencing platform for human genome sequencing and analysis. The company is a wholly-owned subsidiary of MGI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurogenomics</span> Part of the study of the genome

Neurogenomics is the study of how the genome of an organism influences the development and function of its nervous system. This field intends to unite functional genomics and neurobiology in order to understand the nervous system as a whole from a genomic perspective.

The Center for Applied Genomics is a research center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia that focuses on genomics research and the utilization of basic research findings in the development of new medical treatments.

Genomic structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism's chromosome, such as deletions, duplications, copy-number variants, insertions, inversions and translocations. Originally, a structure variation affects a sequence length about 1kb to 3Mb, which is larger than SNPs and smaller than chromosome abnormality. However, the operational range of structural variants has widened to include events > 50bp. Some structural variants are associated with genetic diseases, however most are not. Approximately 13% of the human genome is defined as structurally variant in the normal population, and there are at least 240 genes that exist as homozygous deletion polymorphisms in human populations, suggesting these genes are dispensable in humans. While humans carry a median of 3.6 Mbp in SNPs, a median of 8.9 Mbp is affected by structural variation which thus causes most genetic differences between humans in terms of raw sequence data.

Cognitive genomics is the sub-field of genomics pertaining to cognitive function in which the genes and non-coding sequences of an organism's genome related to the health and activity of the brain are studied. By applying comparative genomics, the genomes of multiple species are compared in order to identify genetic and phenotypical differences between species. Observed phenotypical characteristics related to the neurological function include behavior, personality, neuroanatomy, and neuropathology. The theory behind cognitive genomics is based on elements of genetics, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, cognitive psychology, behavioral psychology, and neurophysiology.

Joseph D. Buxbaum is an American molecular and cellular neuroscientist, autism researcher, and the Director of the Seaver Autism Center at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Buxbaum is also, along with Simon Baron-Cohen, the co-editor of the BioMed Central journal Molecular Autism, and is a member of the scientific advisory board of the Autism Science Foundation. Buxbaum is a Professor of Psychiatry, Neuroscience, and Genetics and Genomic Sciences. He is also the Vice Chair for Research and for Mentoring in the Department of Psychiatry at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

Daniel H. Geschwind is an American physician-scientist whose laboratory has made pioneering discoveries in the biology of brain disorders and the genetic and genomic analyses of the nervous system.

Evdokia Anagnostou is a professor in the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Toronto, and is cross-appointed as pediatric neurologist and a senior clinician scientist at the Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital in Toronto, Canada. She is a Tier 2 Canada Research Chair in Translational Therapeutics in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Human somatic variations are somatic mutations both at early stages of development and in adult cells. These variations can lead either to pathogenic phenotypes or not, even if their function in healthy conditions is not completely clear yet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deborah Nickerson</span> American human genomics researcher (1954–2021)

Deborah Ann Nickerson was an American human genomics researcher. She was professor of genome sciences at the University of Washington. Nickerson founded and directed of one of the five clinical sites of the Gregor Consortium and was a major contributor to many genomics projects, including the Human Genome Project and the International HapMap Project.

Sagiv Shifman is an Israeli scientist, professor in the field of neurogenetics at the Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He holds the Arnold and Bess Zeldich Ungerman chair in Neurobiology.

References

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  6. ↑ Stephen W. Scherer. The National Library of Medicine.
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  10. ↑ Cohn, Ronald; Scherer, Stephen W.; Hamosh, Ada (2023). Genetics and Genomics in Medicine (9th ed.). Thompson & Thompson. ISBN   9780323547628.
  11. ↑ The treasures of chromosome 7. Autumn 2001. The University of Toronto Magazine. 
  12. ↑ Walking the jungles and deserts of chromosome 7. September 2003. Howard Hughes Medical Institute Bulletin.
  13. ↑ Milestones in Canadian Health Research; Decoding life. 2010. Canadian Institutes of Health Research.
  14. ↑ Belloni, E.; Muenke, M.; Roessler, E.; Traverse, G.; Siegel-Bartelt, J.; Frumkin, A.; Mitchell, H. F.; Donis-Keller, H.; Helms, C.; Hing, A. V.; Heng, H. H. Q.; Koop, B.; Martindale, D.; Rommens, J. M.; Tsui, L.C. (November 1, 1996). "Identification of Sonic hedgehog as a candidate gene responsible for holoprosencephaly". Nature Genetics. 14 (3): 353–356. doi:10.1038/ng1196-353. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   8896571. S2CID   23432640.
  15. ↑ Roessler, Erich; Belloni, Elena; Gaudenz, Karin; Jay, Philippe; Berta, Philippe; Scherer, Stephen W.; Tsui, Lap-Chee; Muenke, Maximilian (November 1, 1996). "Mutations in the human Sonic Hedgehog gene cause holoprosencephaly". Nature Genetics. 14 (3): 357–360. doi:10.1038/ng1196-357. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   8896572. S2CID   20946001.
  16. ↑ Schmidt, Laura; Duh, Fuh-Mei; Chen, Fan; Kishida, Takeshi; Glenn, Gladys; Choyke, Peter; Scherer, Stephen W.; Zhuang, Zhenping; Lubensky, Irina; Dean, Michael; Allikmets, Rando; Chidambaram, Abi; Bergerheim, Ulf R.; Feltis, J. Timothy; Casadevall, Carme (May 1, 1997). "Germline and somatic mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of the MET proto-oncogene in papillary renal carcinomas". Nature Genetics. 16 (1): 68–73. doi:10.1038/ng0597-68. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   9140397.
  17. ↑ Osborne, Lucy R.; Li, Martin; Pober, Barbara; Chitayat, David; Bodurtha, Joann; Mandel, Ariane; Costa, Teresa; Grebe, Theresa; Cox, Sarah; Tsui, Lap-Chee; Scherer, Stephen W. (October 29, 2001). "A 1.5 million–base pair inversion polymorphism in families with Williams-Beuren syndrome". Nature Genetics. 29 (3): 321–325. doi:10.1038/ng753. ISSN   1061-4036. PMC   2889916 . PMID   11685205.
  18. ↑ Somerville, Martin J.; Mervis, Carolyn B.; Young, Edwin J.; Seo, Eul-Ju; del Campo, Miguel; Bamforth, Stephen; Peregrine, Ella; Loo, Wayne; Lilley, Margaret; Pérez-Jurado, Luis A.; Morris, Colleen A.; Scherer, Stephen W.; Osborne, Lucy R. (October 20, 2005). "Severe Expressive-Language Delay Related to Duplication of the Williams–Beuren Locus". New England Journal of Medicine. 353 (16): 1694–1701. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa051962. ISSN   0028-4793. PMC   2893213 . PMID   16236740.
  19. ↑ Ross, Alison J.; Ruiz-Perez, Victor; Wang, Yiming; Hagan, Donna-Marie; Scherer, Steve; Lynch, Sally A.; Lindsay, Susan; Custard, Emily; Belloni, Elena; Wilson, David I.; Wadey, Roy; Goodman, Frances; Orstavik, Karen Helene; Monclair, Tom; Robson, Steve (December 1, 1998). "A homeobox gene, HLXB9, is the major locus for dominantly inherited sacral agenesis". Nature Genetics. 20 (4): 358–361. doi:10.1038/3828. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   9843207. S2CID   31062371.
  20. ↑ Kobayashi, Keiko; Sinasac, David S.; Iijima, Mikio; Boright, Andrew P.; Begum, Laila; Lee, Jeffrey R.; Yasuda, Tomotsugu; Ikeda, Sayaka; Hirano, Ryuki; Terazono, Hiroki; Crackower, Michael A.; Kondo, Ikuko; Tsui, Lap-Chee; Scherer, Stephen W.; Saheki, Takeyori (June 1999). "The gene mutated in adult-onset type II citrullinaemia encodes a putative mitochondrial carrier protein". Nature Genetics. 22 (2): 159–163. doi:10.1038/9667. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   10369257. S2CID   20137905.
  21. ↑ Smith, Annabel N.; Skaug, Jennifer; Choate, Keith A.; Nayir, Ahmet; Bakkaloglu, Aysin; Ozen, Seza; Hulton, Sally A.; Sanjad, Sami A.; Al-Sabban, Essam A.; Lifton, Richard P.; Scherer, Stephen W.; Karet, Fiona E. (September 1, 2000). "Mutations in ATP6N1B, encoding a new kidney vacuolar proton pump 116-kD subunit, cause recessive distal renal tubular acidosis with preserved hearing". Nature Genetics. 26 (1): 71–75. doi:10.1038/79208. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   10973252. S2CID   19880326.
  22. ↑ Canadian scientists discover giant gene. February 10th, 2001. Globe and Mail.
  23. ↑ Scherer, Stephen W.; Cheung, Joseph; MacDonald, Jeffrey R.; Osborne, Lucy R.; Nakabayashi, Kazuhiko; Herbrick, Jo-Anne; Carson, Andrew R.; Parker-Katiraee, Layla; Skaug, Jennifer; Khaja, Razi; Zhang, Junjun; Hudek, Alexander K.; Li, Martin; Haddad, May; Duggan, Gavin E. (May 2, 2003). "Human Chromosome 7: DNA Sequence and Biology". Science. 300 (5620): 767–772. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..767S. doi:10.1126/science.1083423. ISSN   0036-8075. PMC   2882961 . PMID   12690205.
  24. ↑ Minassian, Berge A.; Lee, Jeffrey R.; Herbrick, Jo-Anne; Huizenga, Jack; Soder, Sylvia; Mungall, Andrew J.; Dunham, Ian; Gardner, Rebecca; Fong, Chung-yan G.; Carpenter, Stirling; Jardim, Laura; Satishchandra, P.; Andermann, Eva; Snead, O. Carter; Lopes-Cendes, Iscia (October 1, 1998). "Mutations in a gene encoding a novel protein tyrosine phosphatase cause progressive myoclonus epilepsy". Nature Genetics. 20 (2): 171–174. doi:10.1038/2470. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   9771710. S2CID   8277795.
  25. ↑ Chan, Elayne M.; Young, Edwin J.; Ianzano, Leonarda; Munteanu, Iulia; Zhao, Xiaochu; Christopoulos, Constantine C.; Avanzini, Giuliano; Elia, Maurizio; Ackerley, Cameron A.; Jovic, Nebojsa J.; Bohlega, Saeed; Andermann, Eva; Rouleau, Guy A.; Delgado-Escueta, Antonio V.; Minassian, Berge A. (September 7, 2003). "Mutations in NHLRC1 cause progressive myoclonus epilepsy". Nature Genetics. 35 (2): 125–127. doi:10.1038/ng1238. ISSN   1546-1718. PMID   12958597. S2CID   32590557.
  26. ↑ Gene hunters race against Lafora curse. September 27th, 2003. National Post
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  30. ↑ Steve Olson (November 2007). "The changing face of DNA" (PDF). Howard Hughes Medical Institute Bulletin.
  31. ↑ DNA deletions and duplications help determine health. September 7th, 2007. Science.
  32. ↑ Nature. From the archives (2004): Large-scale structural variation in the human genome. (27 April 2017).
  33. ↑ "Database of Genomic Variants". Database of Genomic Variants: A curated catalogue of human genomic structural variation.
  34. ↑ Redon, Richard; Ishikawa, Shumpei; Fitch, Karen R.; Feuk, Lars; Perry, George H.; Andrews, T. Daniel; Fiegler, Heike; Shapero, Michael H.; Carson, Andrew R.; Chen, Wenwei; Cho, Eun Kyung; Dallaire, Stephanie; Freeman, Jennifer L.; González, Juan R.; Gratacòs, Mònica (November 23, 2006). "Global variation in copy number in the human genome". Nature. 444 (7118): 444–454. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..444R. doi:10.1038/nature05329. ISSN   1476-4687. PMC   2669898 . PMID   17122850.
  35. ↑ Conrad, Donald F.; Pinto, Dalila; Redon, Richard; Feuk, Lars; Gokcumen, Omer; Zhang, Yujun; Aerts, Jan; Andrews, T. Daniel; Barnes, Chris; Campbell, Peter; Fitzgerald, Tomas; Hu, Min; Ihm, Chun Hwa; Kristiansson, Kati; MacArthur, Daniel G. (October 7, 2009). "Origins and functional impact of copy number variation in the human genome". Nature. 464 (7289): 704–712. doi:10.1038/nature08516. ISSN   1476-4687. PMC   3330748 . PMID   19812545.
  36. ↑ Khaja, Razi; Zhang, Junjun; MacDonald, Jeffrey R.; He, Yongshu; Joseph-George, Ann M.; Wei, John; Rafiq, Muhammad A.; Qian, Cheng; Shago, Mary; Pantano, Lorena; Aburatani, Hiroyuki; Jones, Keith; Redon, Richard; Hurles, Matthew; Armengol, Lluis (November 22, 2006). "Genome assembly comparison identifies structural variants in the human genome". Nature Genetics. 38 (12): 1413–1418. doi:10.1038/ng1921. ISSN   1546-1718. PMC   2674632 . PMID   17115057.
  37. ↑ Levy, Samuel; Sutton, Granger; Ng, Pauline C.; Feuk, Lars; Halpern, Aaron L.; Walenz, Brian P.; Axelrod, Nelson; Huang, Jiaqi; Kirkness, Ewen F.; Denisov, Gennady; Lin, Yuan; MacDonald, Jeffrey R.; Pang, Andy Wing Chun; Shago, Mary; Stockwell, Timothy B. (September 4, 2007). "The Diploid Genome Sequence of an Individual Human". PLOS Biology. 5 (10): e254. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050254 . ISSN   1545-7885. PMC   1964779 . PMID   17803354.
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