Sursock bronze

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Sursock bronze
Jupiter Heliopolitanus - Louvre AO19534.jpg
Completion date2nd century AD
CatalogueAO 19534
Medium Gilded bronze
Subject Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus wearing an ependytes featuring the busts of celestial deities Helios, Selene, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Juno, and Saturn. Tyche is featured on the pedestal.
Dimensions38.4 cm× 14.7 cm(15.1 in× 5.8 in)
ConditionMissing right arm. Statuette vandalized in antiquity
Location Louvre, Paris

The Sursock bronze also known as the Sursock statuette is a second century AD gilded bronze sculptural group of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus, a syncretic supreme deity worshipped in the Great Temple of Baalbek, Lebanon, now in the Louvre. The temple, the largest in the Roman world, was renowned for its oracular activity. The statuette, measuring 38.4 centimetres (15.1 in) in height, stands on a small cubic base flanked by a pair of calves. The entire group rests on a larger rectangular plinth. Originally gilded, much of the gold has worn away.

Contents

The Sursock bronze is modeled after the great statue of Jupiter Heliopolitanus as it stood in the Great Temple of Baalbek around the mid-second century AD. Its syncretic iconography shows the god as a beardless youth wearing a kalathos , a basket-shaped hat, and an ependytes , a close-fitting dress, under an ornate armor. The armor envelops the full length of the deity's body and features busts of seven celestial deities, arranged in square registers. From top left to bottom right these are: Helios and Selene in the top row as the deities of the Sun and the Moon, respectively; Mars and Mercury in the next; followed by Jupiter, his consort Juno (replacing Venus, consistent with ancient Greek and Latin sources associating Venus' celestial light with Juno), and Saturn. Four-pointed stars etched next to Mars, Mercury, and Saturn to indicate their planetary nature, while Venus is flanked by a pair of stars, alluding to her dual aspects as 'morning' and 'evening star'. The Belgian archaeologist and historian Franz Cumont interpreted the arrangement of the busts as evidence of local priests' advanced astrological knowledge.

The statuette also displays a winged solar disc above the armor busts and a lion's head above Jupiter's bare feet. On the front of the small pedestal stands Tyche of the city, wearing a mural crown and holding a cornucopia, while stylized thunderbolt motifs adorn the sides of the armor. The Sursock bronze illustrates the syncretic nature of the Jupiter Heliopolitanus, who evolved from the ancient Canaanite Baal-Hadad and integrated Greek and Roman aspects. The deity's prominent Adam's apple and hollow base suggest that the statuette was connected with the temple's oracular functions, potentially functioning as a medium for divine messages and as an object employed in ritual processions.

The Sursock bronze is named after its former owner, the Lebanese collector Charles Sursock. As preserved, the statuette is missing the god's right arm. Discovered in a damaged state, possibly vandalized in antiquity by early Christian iconoclasts, it was restored and is now the showpiece of the Louvre's Department of Oriental Antiquities Roman Levant collection. In 1920 the French archaeologist René Dussaud, then Deputy Curator of the Department of Oriental Antiquities at the Louvre, chose it as the subject for the article inaugurating the first issue of Syria , a leading journal of French archaeological research in the Levant.

Historical background and discovery

Remains of the Great Temple of Baalbek 1 (5) Baalbeck Temples.jpg
Remains of the Great Temple of Baalbek

The cult of Jupiter Heliopolitanus

Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus (Latin : Iovi Optimo Maximo Heliopolitano; shortened IOMH) was a syncretic supreme deity worshipped in the Great Temple of Baalbek, located in modern-day Lebanon. His cult evolved from the Canaanite religion, specifically from the worship of Baal-Hadad, an ancient storm and fertility god worshiped in various regions of the Levant, including Canaan and Syria. Baal, meaning "lord", "owner", or "master", was a title applied to various local deities. Hadad, in particular, was known as the god of rain, thunder, and storms, associated with agricultural fertility, and was often depicted holding a whip and thunderbolt. [1] [2] Modern scholarship largely identifies Baal with Hadad, [3] [4] suggesting the name Baal (Lord) was adopted as a reverent alias when Hadad's cult grew in importance, rendering his true name too sacred to be spoken aloud by anyone except the high priest. This practice was parallelled in other cultures where substitute titles were used for deities whose names were considered too holy, such as "Bel" for Marduk among the Babylonians and "Adonai" for Yahweh. While a number of scholars propose that Baal was an indigenous Canaanite deity whose cult was identified with or absorbed aspects of Hadad's, [4] by the 1st millennium BC, Hadad and Baal were regarded as distinct deities: Hadad was primarilly venerated by the Aramaeans, while Baal was venerated by the Phoenicians and other Canaanites. [4]

Tetradrachm of Antiochus XII Dionysus (87/6-84/3 BC), Damascus mint, SE 230 (83/2 BC). Obverse: diademed head right; Reverse: Hadad standing on double base, holding wheat stalk, flanked by bull foreparts. Antiochus XII & Hadad.jpg
Tetradrachm of Antiochus XII Dionysus (87/6–84/3 BC), Damascus mint, SE 230 (83/2 BC). Obverse: diademed head right; Reverse: Hadad standing on double base, holding wheat stalk, flanked by bull foreparts.

During the Hellenistic period, [a] the cult of Baal-Hadad in Baalbek acquired a solar character. [b] [10] The Hellenistic overlords likely conflated Baal-Hadad with their sun god Helios, a storm god often depicted brandishing a whip, symbolizing lightning. [11] The whip was also a symbol associated with Helios, who was often depicted holding a whip to drive his sun chariot across the sky. [12] This shared iconography likely led to the conflation of the two deities by the new Hellenistic overlords who also renamed the town Heliopolis. [13] [14] This name is often interpreted as evidence for the worship of a solar deity, a practice that likely emerged during the Ptolemaic administration of the region in the third century BC. [15] The name Heliopolis, shared with the famous Egyptian city, was used by the priests of the Egyptian Heliopolis to misattribute the origins of the cult of Baalbek to their own traditions, [16] [17] as recounted by the Roman historian Macrobius ( Saturnalia , early 5th century AD), who added to the myth by reporting that the cult statue of Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek originally came from Egypt. [14] [18] Modern scholars dispute this claim, recognizing it as part of the broader syncretic tendencies of Roman historians. [19]

The association of the god of Baalbek with solar attributes endured following the annexation of the region by Rome in 63 BC. [c] [14] The cult of Hadad found its way to Rome, where he was mentioned in three inscriptions on an altar uncovered on the eastern slopes of the Janiculum hill. The inscriptions read: "to the god Adados", "to the god Adados of Libanos", and "to the god Adados of the Mountaintop" are believed by British classical archaeologist and scholar Arthur Bernard Cook to suggest an increasing trend toward associating Hadad more with Jupiter, known as a mountain god, rather than with Helios. [20] The cult of Hadad/Helios eventually syncretized with the Roman chief god Jupiter, [1] evolving into a cosmic and universal deity. [21] In the second century AD, the Romans built a monumental temple complex in Baalbek, dedicated to Iupiter Heliopolitanus (Heliopolitan Jupiter). [20] [17] The Temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek was renowned in antiquity for its oracular functions and as a divination center; [22] it is also the largest Roman temple ever constructed, [23] with columns 20 meters tall and a podium built from massive stone blocks, some weighing up to 800 tons. [24] Macrobius records that during oracle sessions, the god's statue was carried in a litter by the bearers who, guided by divine will, moved in certain directions, which priests interpreted to deliver oracles. [25] The cult of Heliopolitan Jupiter spread from this cultic center to far corners of the Roman empire. [20] [26] The ritual practices. [d] and cultic installations of the Temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek [e] still exhibited, even in Roman times, significant Semitic influences, as detailed by the Syrian priest and scholar Joseph N. Hajjar. [28]

Identification and descriptions of the Heliopolitan Jupiter iconographic type

The French archaeologist and Assyriologist François Lenormant first described the Heliopolitan representation of Jupiter in 1876, [29] based on a relief engraved on a votive stele discovered in 1752 in the basin of a Roman-era fountain in Nîmes. [30] A significant number of representations of the Heliopolitan Jupiter type have been identified including bronzes, statuettes, stone or marble reliefs, and coins from various cities of the Levant, including Orthosia in Phoenicia, Caesarea ad Libanum, Ptolemais in Phoenicia, Neapolis, Eleutheropolis, Diospolis, Nikopolis in Palestine, and Dium. [31] [29] The god is often depicted donning his characteristic kalathos , a vase-shaped headdress that tapers at the base. Some of the bronze statuettes replace the kalathos with a pschent, the Ancient Egyptian double crown, or a radiate crown as shown on miniature engravings. [31] [32] The image of Jupiter Heliopolitanus exhibits multiple iconographic variations, primarily in the deity's garments details rather than his physical attributes. [33] Typically, he is depicted standing, wearing a kalathos (a basket shaped headdress that flares upward and outward from a torus-shaped base) and an ependytes (a close-fitting dress) and an armor adorned with rosettes and busts of divinities, while his physical features, such as being a youthful, beardless god with voluminous corkscrew locks, remain consistent. [33] The iconography is corroborated by the 5th century AD report of Macrobius who, citing third century Phoenician philosopher Porphyry, described the cult statue of Jupiter Heliopolitanus as youthful and beardless, with layered, cascading thick locks of hair, brandishing a thunderbolt and ears of wheat in his raised left hand. [34] [31] This description is generally accurate, except regarding the attribute in the god's left hand, where Macrobius adds the thunderbolt to the ears of wheat. No known representations depict these two attributes combined. [35]

Altar of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Nemausus (CIL XII 3072), Nimes
Altar of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Nemausus (CIL XII 3072) - left side.jpg
Left side
Altar of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Nemausus (CIL XII 3072) - front.jpg
Front
Altar of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Nemausus (CIL XII 3072) - right side.jpg
Right side
Jupiter Heliopolitanus from the Gazette archeologique, 1876.jpg
1876 engraving of left side
White marble altar, dedicated to Jupiter Heliopolitanus and Nemausus by Caius Julius Tiberinus, primipile centurion, discovered in 1742 in the Fountain basin at Nîmes. Left: Jupiter Heliopolitanus standing. Engraving from Gazette archéologique, 1876. [36]

Discovery

Rene Dussaud wrote in 1920 a detailed monograph on the Sursock bronze. Rene Dussaud (1868-1958) portrait.jpg
René Dussau d wrote in 1920 a detailed monograph on the Sursock bronze.

The discovery date and location of the Sursock Bronze remain a subject of debate. The French archaeologist and then Deputy Curator of Louvre's Department of Near Eastern Antiquities René Dussaud, writing in his 1920 monograph "Jupiter héliopolitain. Bronze de la collection Charles Sursock", identified Baalbek as the discovery site. [37] The Jesuit scholar Sébastien Ronzevalle provided a more ambiguous claim, stating that the statuette was found "in Lebanon". [38] The bronze is named after Beiruti aristocrat Charles Sursock who acquired it from antiquarian Jamil Baroudy. Baroudy may have cited Baalbek as the find spot to enhance the statuette's appeal and increase its market value. Another contemporary Lebanese antiquarian, Élie Bustros, suggested an alternative site near Choueifat, a location considered credible by historian Joseph Hajjar due to its association with two dedications to Heliopolitan Jupitear. [39] [40] Initially, only the top part of the statuette including the idol's body was discovered; later, the lower part with the bases and bulls, was also found. The right arm however, was never located. All parts of the bronze group were hacked and disjointed with the kalathos headdress separated from the head, the head detached from the body and the small cubic pedestal separated from the underlying larger base. The bulls and the nose of the idol were particularly affected by axe blows in antiquity, [37] probably by early Christian iconoclasts. [41] The bronze was acquired by the Louvre in 1939. [42]

Composition and description

The statuette is 38.4 cm (15.1 in) tall; the god is depicted standing on a cubic base measuring 5.5 cm × 5 cm (2.2 in × 2.0 in). Two bulls, flank the effigy of the god, with the entire group resting on a rectangular base measuring 14.7 cm (5.8 in) wide, 12.7 cm (5.0 in) deep and 4.7 cm (1.9 in) high. [37] [43] The entire statuette was originally coated in gold, and although much of it has worn away, there are still visible traces of it remaining. [37] The god is depicted youthful, beardless and with a full face; these attributes reflect an ancient local type of the god Hadad devoid of classical influence. The eye grooves were once inlaid with enamel or precious stone according to the Syro-Phoenician practice. A powerful blow to the face slightly curved the tip of the nose downwards. The neck is thick, with a prominent Adam's apple, and he hair falls onto the shoulders in four layers of curly locks, completely covering the ears. [44]

Close-up of the Sursock bronze, highlighting the distinctive kalathos. Jupiter Heliopolitanus - Louvre AO19534 - 5.jpg
Close-up of the Sursock bronze, highlighting the distinctive kalathos.

The statuette's head is crowned by a kalathos. The body of the kalathos decorated with four ears of wheat and an interlocking pattern of foliage or intertwined reeds that compose the basket. [45] The top of the front of the kalathos features a sun disk framed by two uraei (representations of a sacred snake used as a symbol of sovereignty and divinity in Ancient Egypt). [44] He wears a short-sleeved ependytes, covered by an armor bearing scrollwork bands that delimit compartments with figured decorations. [46] The front and back of deity's armor is divided into square registers, with one to two registers per row. The front registers contain miniature busts of seven celestial deities, while the back registers house cultic animals and symbols. [47] On the front, from the top, a single register features a winged disk, followed in the next row by two square registers with the busts of Helios, and Selene/Luna, the crescent Moon. [42] [48] Helios is depicted holding a whip in his right hand. [49] The third register also includes two registers featuring Mars wearing military cuirass with imbricated scales and a legionary's shoulder piece, alongside Mercury with a caduceus and a winged helmet. [f] [51] The fourth row features the busts of a bearded and draped Jupiter, and his consort Juno, veiled and wearing a diadem. Underneath the duo, and in a single compartment is a bust of a bearded and veiled Saturn. [52] These busts represent the sun, the moon and planets, with Juno replacing Venus, consistent with ancient Greek and Latin sources associating Venus' celestial light with Juno. The planetary nature of these deities is emphasized by four-pointed star symbols placed next to Mars, Mercury, and Saturn, while Venus notably has two stars, one on each side of the bust, representing the dual aspect as both morning and evening star, Phosphorus and Hesperus respectively. [53] The bottom register of the front of the dress features a lion head figure positioned above the statuette's bare feet. The reverse of the tunic is divided into ten registers featuring from top to bottom, a winged solar disk with uraei, an eagle with outstretched wings, two ram heads facing each other, two four-pointed stars and four rosettes. [42] [48] The sides of the dress consist of a vertical field stretching from under each of the statuette's armpits to its feet. These fields feature each a stylized thunderbolt. [47] The front face of the small base supporting the figure of the Jupiter is adorned with the image of Tyche, the tutelary goddess of the city, wearing a mural crown and holding a cornucopia. [54]

Close-up showing the calves. Jupiter Heliopolitanus - Louvre AO19534 - 1.jpg
Close-up showing the calves.

Two calves (young bulls) flank the small base. According to Dussaud, the proportions of the Sursock bronze bulls confirm that these are young, further evidenced by their underdeveloped horns. This observation is corroborated by the relief in the Calvet Museum, which elucidates that in the parallel Israelite cult of the golden calf, the Hebrew term used is ʿgel, meaning "young bull". [55] In the Levant, the bull/calf was the animal of Hadad. [56] The group's large base is composed of a horizontal top plate and four side panels, forming a hollow, bottomless structure. Each side panel has two circular holes, about 1 cm (0.39 in) in diameter, aligned in pairs across the opposite sides. [57] Additionally, the top plate of the base has a circular opening, about 7.3 cm (2.9 in) in diameter, which likely corresponded to a hollow space below. The edge of the opening shows no signs of wear or fitting, which suggests it wasn't used to hold an object like a ceremonial cup or incense burner. [57] The arrangement of the group in two tiers is corroborated by several replicas, including a relief in the Calvet Museum. [58]

Dating

The statuette is dated to the second century AD. [59] [42] Dussaud presented that the Sursock bronze is a miniature of the cultic image of Jupiter as he was venerated in the Great Temple of Baalbek around the mid-second century AD. [60] [61] He proposed that it was not merely a votive statuette, it rather may have been used in oracular ceremonies. [62] He also posited that the vandalism to which the statuette was subjected implies that the idol was damaged by early Christians iconoclasts. [29]

Interpretation

Illustration of a ferculum used by Roman soldiers to carry spoils. Detail of a bas-relief from the Arch of Titus. Ferculum.jpg
Illustration of a ferculum used by Roman soldiers to carry spoils. Detail of a bas-relief from the Arch of Titus.

Dussaud draws attention to the statuette's prominent Adam's apple, and notes how other replicas emphasize this anatomic feature. He linked its exaggerated representation to the deity's oracular abilities. [44] [g] Explaining the distinctive large hollow base of the Sursock Bronze with four perforated lateral panels and an upper plate featuring a circular opening, he presented two interpretations: One hypothesis suggests that the opening was used for depositing votive offerings, a practice attested in ancient Near Eastern and Judaic traditions (Genesis 35:4; Exodus 32:2; Judges 8:24–27). [64] Alternatively, the opening may have facilitated the transmission of oracular messages. The oracle of Heliopolis was renowned, with records indicating that devotees submitted written questions, to which the god responded through the priests. A well-documented example is the consultation of Trajan, who tested the oracle by sending sealed blank tablets; the response, a vine branch cut into pieces, was later interpreted as a prophecy of his death (Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.23.14). The Sursock Bronze, would then, according to Dussaud, be positioned above an opening in a temple platform, may have served as a conduit for such responses. [65] Hajjar offered an alternative hypothesis, referencing ancient texts that describe the simulacrum of Jupiter Heliopolitanus being carried on a 'ferculum during processions before delivering oracles. He posited that the two holes on each of the base's sides, provide evidence of the transport of the idol during processions and religious ceremonies. [66]

Iconographical precedents

Canaanite god with composite headdress, Louvre. Dieu a coiffure composite - cornes, plumes, et disque.jpg
Canaanite god with composite headdress, Louvre.

Dussaud noted that the statuette's imagery aligns with earlier depictions of Baal-Hadad, with a left arm holding ears of grain and a broken right arm that originally brandished a whip. This whip appears to have replaced Hadad's conventional weapon, [58] the thunderbolt, [67] after his identification with the solar deity Helios, thereby symbolizing his daily celestial journey across the sky. [58] He adds that, while some iconographic elements, like grouped divine bust on the deity's dress reflect artistic trends from the second century AD, others suggest greater antiquity, drawing similarity to a bronze in the Louvre (pictured). The bronze in question depicts, according to the author, an earlier form of the Heliopolitan Jupiter; it features a columnar body, a beardless head, and an elaborate headdress incorporating a uraeus, bull horns, a solar disk, ostrich feathers, and an eagle. [58] [68] Dussaud remarks that the presence of the eagle is of particular interest, as no document prior to Alexander the Great's conquest associated this animal with the Baal-Hadad. It was previously thought that this connection arose under Greek influence, when Hadad, was identified with Zeus, whose emblem is the eagle. He notes however, that the Louvre bronze suggests that the eagle's association with the god is older, potentially dating back to the Persian period. [58]

Iconographical variability

Writing in 2010, the University of Nottingham scholar Andreas Kropp examined the decorative variability of the garments on representations of Jupiter Heliopolitanus, most notably exemplified by the Sursock Bronze. Although preserved depictions share similar attributes, usually featuring Helios and Selene in the top register, no two examples display the same arrangement of details or number of registers. The front panel often includes deities associated with the seven planets or various motifs such as rosettes, discs, and mythical creatures, while the back side tends to be simpler, sometimes featuring repeated symbols like ram's heads or the winged sun-disc, with the remaining fields usually filled with rosettes. [69] This structural yet highly individualized iconography contrasts with the more standardized cult images of figures such as Ephesian Artemis or Aphrodite of Aphrodisias during the Roman imperial period. The variability of iconography of Jupiter Heliopolitanus may stem from limited access to the cult statue in its temple adyton and restricted opportunities to observe it closely outside occasional processions. [70]

The celestial deities

Celestial deity orders of the Sursock bronze, as discussed by Franz Cumont. The sequence on the right arranges the luminaries and planets according to their distance from Earth based on the ancient geocentric model. The sequence on the left represents the order associated with the planetary rulers of the days of the Roman week. Sursock Bronze - Cumont interpretation of luminaries and planetary gods arrangement.png
Celestial deity orders of the Sursock bronze, as discussed by Franz Cumont. The sequence on the right arranges the luminaries and planets according to their distance from Earth based on the ancient geocentric model. The sequence on the left represents the order associated with the planetary rulers of the days of the Roman week.

Writing in 1921, the Belgian archaeologist and historian Franz Cumont presented that the spatial arrangement of the celestial deities busts follows two significant orderings: when read right to left and top to bottom, the sequence Moon-Mercury-Venus-Sun-Mars-Jupiter-Saturn represents their distance from Earth outwards according to Chaldean and later Alexandrian astronomers; [71] [72] when read left to right, the sequence Sun-Moon-Mars-Mercury-Jupiter-Venus-Saturn corresponds to the days of the week. This dual reading demonstrates the sophisticated astrological knowledge of the Heliopolis priests. He further posits that the busts of the Sursock bronze provide the first evidence that the planetary week played a crucial role in the cultic practices of the Heliopolitan clergy and in the Great Temple's worship practices. This idea is supported by evidence of daily planetary prayers in Harran and similar practices in Mithraic mysteries, suggesting that Syrian cults and Iranian Mithraic religion, helped spread the use of the astrological week throughout the Latin world. [71] According to Bel, the planetary deities ornamentation reflects a Roman Imperial era conceptualization, in which Jupiter Heliopolitanus evolved into a cosmological, universal force, encompassing planetary motion, the passage of time, and possessing oracular abilities that enjoyed significant popularity during the imperial period. [73]

The lion head

The lion head, along with the bucranium (bull head) are recurring architectural motifs in the great temple of Baalbek. Baalbek-109929.jpg
The lion head, along with the bucranium (bull head) are recurring architectural motifs in the great temple of Baalbek.

In his 1920 monograph, Dussaud identified the lion head at the lower front of the dress as a representation of the god Gennaios, [50] a figure regarded as a solar deity venerated at Baalbek. [74] Kropp proposed in 2010 that the term "Gennaios" may not refer to a distinct deity but could instead derive from the Aramaic GNYʾ, linking it to the Arabic concept of jinn (Arabic: جن), which denotes a divine or powerful entity rather than a proper name. [75] He further proposed that the lion head may represent an attribute capable of appearing alongside different gods, highlighting their divine status, suggesting that the lion head need not be interpreted as a unique deity or a representation thereof; rather, it serves as an attribute or visual epithet applicable to several gods underscoring their divinity. [75] In 1956, the French Jesuit priest and archaeologist René Mouterde published findings regarding two previously undocumented inscriptions from Lebanon relating to Jupiter Heliopolitanus, the second of which references "I.O.M.H. regulo". Mouterde interpreted "regulus" in its astronomical context, referring to the brightest star in the Leo constellation. [h] [76]

Mouterde observed that this astronomical association is reflected in the material culture, noting the presence of lion imagery on multiple Jupiter Heliopolitanus representations. He suggested that this leonine symbolism served both celestial and solar functions, corresponding to the deity's identification with Helios-Sol, particularly given Leo's traditional designation as the sun's celestial house in ancient astronomy. According to Mouterde, this interpretation may also explain the architectural decoration of Baalbek's main temples, where alternating bull and lion motifs potentially represent the deity's dual nature as both Hadad and a solar-stellar deity. [77] Other scholars presented different views: Cumont suggested that the lion head and the winged disk adorning the front of the bronze may have held an astrological or cosmological significance, though he acknowledged that its precise meaning remains uncertain. He further proposed that the lion head might also serve as an attribute of Saturn. [78] Hajjar associated the lion motif with Athena-Allat, suggesting that it represents an attribute of the goddess. [79]

Significance

The Sursock bronce is the showpiece of the Louvre's Department of Oriental Antiquities Roman Levant collection; [42] it was formerly part of the Charles Sursock collection. In 1920, French archaeologist René Dussaud, then Deputy Curator of the Department of Oriental Antiquities, selected the Sursock bronze as the subject for the article inaugurating the first issue of the Syria, a leading publication for French archaeological research in the Levant. [42] [49] A stylized rendering of the sculptural group was adopted as the logo of the Institut français d'archéologie de Beyrouth and the Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient, French archaeological research institutes and the forerunners of the Institut français du Proche-Orient. [80] [81]

Notes

  1. ↑ After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the Diadochi—his generals, family members, and companions—divided and ruled various parts of his empire; this era became known as the Hellenistic period, marked by the spread of Greek culture and influence across the territories they controlled. [5] Control of the Levant, a strategically significant region, was contested among the successors. The Seleucid Empire, led by Seleucus I Nicator, and the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, under Ptolemy I Soter, were primary rivals in this struggle. Following the pivotal Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE, much of the Levant came under Seleucid rule. [6] An early sanctuary existed in Baalbek well before the Macedonian conquest. During the Hellenistic period, it was placed under the authority of the tetrarchs of Chalcis ad Libanum, who also held the title of "high priest". [7]
  2. ↑ University of Nottingham scholar Andreas Kropp challenges the established notions of a solar syncretism of Jupiter Heliopolitanus, [8] and his identification with the Semitic Hadad. He suggests that before the Hellenistic era, a local deity influenced the image of Heliopolitan Jupiter, but he does not specify the name of this deity. [9]
  3. ↑ In 15 BCE, Heliopolis was adjoined to the territory of "Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus", and was no longer under the authority of the indigenous Iturean princes of Chalcis. It maintain however good relations with the princes, who held control over southern access for pilgrims coming from Palestine, Arabia, or Damascus. [7]
  4. ↑ These include rites of divination and the oracular power of Jupiter, the dedication of hair to Venus Heliopolitana and the associated sacred prostitution, the prominence of astrology, ritual processions to the nearby 'Aïn el-Gouë spring with the deposition of divine images in the sacred spring's basins, liturgical banquets, ritual purification and hair shaving, the prohibition of pork, and the celebration of the Maiuma festival. [27]
  5. ↑ The architectural layout of the grand sanctuary—with its two towers flanking the entrance to the temple complex, successive courtyards, isolated columns in the great court, elongated basins for ritual ablutions, and monumental multi-story altar adjacent to a smaller communion sacrifice altar in the courtyard of the Great Temple. [28]
  6. ↑ Dussaud wrongly identified these deities with Athena and Hermes. [50]
  7. ↑ Semitic traditions identified the throat as the principal organ of speech, a notion explicitly reflected in biblical texts. [63]
  8. ↑ Regulus is also known in Greek sources as "Basiliskos" and in Babylonian texts as "Sarru", both meaning king. [76]

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 Dupont-Sommer 1949, pp. 109, 113.
  2. ↑ Seyrig 1929, pp. 315, 346.
  3. ↑ Day 2000, p. 68.
  4. 1 2 3 Hermann 1999, p. 132.
  5. ↑ Green 2008, pp. xv–xvi.
  6. ↑ Green 2008, p. 134.
  7. 1 2 Sartre 1998, p. 187.
  8. ↑ Kropp 2010, p. 261.
  9. ↑ Kropp 2010, p. 237.
  10. ↑ Cook 1914, pp. 549–550; Seyrig 1971, p. 338; Hajjar 1977b, p. 515.
  11. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 515.
  12. ↑ Heck 1851, p. 422.
  13. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 515.
  14. 1 2 3 Cook 1914, pp. 549–550.
  15. ↑ Kropp 2010, p. 238.
  16. ↑ Cook 1914, p. 550.
  17. 1 2 Parrot 1955, p. 99.
  18. ↑ Seyrig 1929, p. 347.
  19. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 4; Seyrig 1929, pp. 346–347; Hajjar 1977b, p. 514.
  20. 1 2 3 Cook 1914, pp. 550–551.
  21. ↑ Bel 2012b, pp. 14–15; Seyrig 1929, pp. 333, 340–341; Niehr 2024, p. 179.
  22. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 437, Footnote 1: "Le temple d'Héliopolis est essentiellement consacré à la divination, nous dit Macrobe qui décrit le fonctionnement de l'oracle.".
  23. ↑ Gordon 1921, p. 136; Magli 2021, p. 178; Paturel 2019, pp. 1, 200.
  24. ↑ Magli 2021, pp. 172, 174.
  25. ↑ Macrobius 2006, 1.23.12; Cook 1914, p. 552; Hajjar 1977a, pp. 36, 251; Hajjar 1977b, pp. 423, 424, 448–449, 514.
  26. ↑ Fowlkes-Childs & Seymour 2019, p. 118.
  27. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 437.
  28. 1 2 Hajjar 1977b, pp. 437–438.
  29. 1 2 3 Dussaud 1920, p. 3.
  30. ↑ Lenormant 1876, p. 78.
  31. 1 2 3 Kropp 2010, p. 232.
  32. ↑ Bel 2012a, pp. 22–23.
  33. 1 2 Hajjar 1977b, pp. 499–505.
  34. ↑ Macrobius 2006, 1.23.12.
  35. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 447.
  36. ↑ Lenormant 1876, pl.21.
  37. 1 2 3 4 Dussaud 1920, p. 4.
  38. ↑ Ronzevalle 1913, p. 522.
  39. ↑ Hajjar 1977a, pp. 274–275, footnote.
  40. ↑ Fleischer 2015, p. 337.
  41. ↑ Bel 2015, 1:55.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bel 2012b, p. 14.
  43. ↑ The Metropolitan Museum of Art (2024). "Statuette of Jupiter Heliopolitanus ("Sursock statuette")". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 4 September 2024.
  44. 1 2 3 Dussaud 1920, p. 5.
  45. ↑ Dussaud 1920, pp. 4–5.
  46. ↑ Dussaud 1920, pp. 4–5; Bel 2012b, p. 14; Kropp 2010, p. 233.
  47. 1 2 Kropp 2010, p. 233.
  48. 1 2 Dussaud 1920, pp. 5–8.
  49. 1 2 Cumont 1921, p. 40.
  50. 1 2 Dussaud 1920, p. 8.
  51. ↑ Bel 2012b, p. 14; Cumont 1921, p. 40; Dussaud 1920, pp. 5–8.
  52. ↑ Bel 2012b, p. 14; Dussaud 1920, pp. 5–8; Cumont 1921, pp. 40–41.
  53. ↑ Cumont 1921, p. 41.
  54. ↑ Dussaud 1920, pp. 8–10.
  55. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 10.
  56. ↑ Seyrig 1929, p. 317.
  57. 1 2 Dussaud 1920, p. 13.
  58. 1 2 3 4 5 Dussaud 1920, pp. 11–13.
  59. ↑ Louvre Museum 2025a.
  60. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 11.
  61. ↑ Fowlkes-Childs & Seymour 2019, p. 124.
  62. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 15.
  63. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 6.
  64. ↑ Dussaud 1920, p. 14.
  65. ↑ Dussaud 1920, pp. 13–15.
  66. ↑ Hajjar 1977b, p. 521; Bel 2012a, pp. 21–22; Bel 2015, 2:15.
  67. ↑ Green 2003, p. 85.
  68. ↑ Louvre Museum 2025b.
  69. ↑ Kropp 2010, pp. 233–234.
  70. ↑ Kropp 2010, pp. 234–235.
  71. 1 2 Cumont 1921, pp. 43–46.
  72. ↑ Beck 2015, pp. 63–64.
  73. ↑ Bel 2012b, pp. 14–15.
  74. ↑ Hill 1910, pp. XLVIII–XLIX, 92.
  75. 1 2 Kropp 2010, pp. 235–236.
  76. 1 2 Mouterde 1956, pp. 46–47.
  77. ↑ Mouterde 1956, pp. 47–48.
  78. ↑ Cumont 1921, p. 45.
  79. ↑ Hajjar 1977a, pp. 293–295.
  80. ↑ Stchoukine 1954, p. 1.
  81. ↑ Yon 1997, p. 2.

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