Sweater design is a specialization of fashion design in which knittedsweaters are designed to fulfill certain aesthetic, functional and commercial criteria. The designer typically considers factors such as the insulating power of the sweater (and its resulting warmth for the wearer); the fashion of its colors, patterns, silhouette and style lines, particularly the neckline and waistline; the convenience and practicality of its cut; and in commercial design, the cost of its production and the profitability of its price point. Sweater designs are often published in books and knitting magazines. Sweater design is an old art, but continues to attract new designers such as Nicky Epstein and Meg Swansen.
The aim of sweater design is a sweater that fulfils certain criteria. The primary criterion is that its intended wearer wants to wear it and, in case of commercial sweater design, is willing to buy it at a commercially feasible price point. General secondary criteria include
the insulating power, material and breathability of the sweater should make its intended wearer physically comfortable;
the sweater should be appropriate for the occasion in which it will be worn;
makes its intended wearer feel fashionably attractive;
For commercial sweater design, the production of the sweater must also be inexpensive, lest the price point be too high and make the sweater undesirable. This is generally done by simplifying the design so that it can be made by machine; more complicated commercial designs are generally hand-knit in pieces that are then stitched together. For example, the separate pieces of the hand-knit sweaters found in stores are generally knit and assembled in different villages in China.
Despite the wealth of design techniques and studies of successful designs, the primary criterion (that the sweater be desired) is not always achieved, often due to factors beyond the designer's control including serendipity.
Functional role as criterion
Sweaters are worn in various circumstances. For example, while some sweaters are worn at fancy dress occasions, others are worn to work, to religious services, in sporting or outdoors events such as hiking and camping. Similarly, the choice of a sweater can vary with different climates and different seasons, even with different times of the day. The sweater designer will generally target a particular occasion and temperature, e.g., a bulky, cabled, long-sleeved woolen seater for camping versus a refined, elegantly simple, short-sleeved cashmere sweater for white-collar work.
Comfort criterion
Comfort is paramount; the sweater should make the wearer feel at ease, in the most general sense. The temperature should be right, the fabric should "breathe" and should not irritate the skin. The sweater should hang right and not need constant adjustment; It should fit well and allow for customary motion without binding (e.g., at the armholes). Finally, a sweater should not make the wearer feel uncomfortable because of its "cut" (e.g. showing bra straps or too much cleavage) or general style (e.g., colors/patterns that the wearer feels are inappropriate).
Fitting a sweater
A simple sweater pattern with drop shoulders and cylindrical torso.
The fit of a sweater affects its comfort, its attractiveness and, sometimes, its practicality (e.g., dangling sleeves can fall into food or get caught on hooks).
The simplest sweaters (drop sleeve, cylindrical) require six measurements:
circumference around the bust/chest (widest point)
circumference (or width) of the neck
under-arm length (armhole to sleeve-cuff hem)
circumference of the arm at the sleeve-cuff hem
back length (vertical distance from back of the neck to lower hem)
armhole depth (vertical distance from bottom of armhole to lower hem)
Sweater with tapered torso and set-in sleeves.
A few more measurements usually produce a well-fitted sweater:
circumference at the lower hem
over-arm length (shoulder to sleeve-cuff hem)
circumference of the upper arm near the armhole
bust height (vertical distance from back of the neck to bust line)
shoulder width (horizontal distance between bony shoulder points, measured across back)
Sweater with a waistline and set-in sleeves.
For a more tailored look, even more measurements are necessary
slope of the shoulders (vertical distance from base of neck to shoulder-point line)
neck-shoulder length (horizontal distance from base of neck to shoulder point)
circumference at the waist, the point of largest inward or outward curvature
waist height (vertical distance from back of the neck to waist line)
Ideally, these measurements will be taken directly from the intended wearer, since bodies are idiosyncratic and these measurements may vary independently of one another, e.g., the bust measurement does not determine the waist or hip measurements, just as the height does not determine the arm length or shoulder width. Alternatively, the body measurements may be estimated from clothing that fits the wearer well. As a last resort, standard measurements such as EN 13402 or US standard clothing sizes may be used.
Of course, a sweater need not conform exactly to the wearer's body. Ease may be introduced to make the sweater larger than the body (oversized), typically by increasing the circumference measurements by 2-6 inches. Different amounts of ease can be introduced at different points to give the sweater a distinctive silhouette. For example, a "Gibson-girl" sleeve is produced by adding much ease to the upper arm and none to the lower arm, whereas the reverse is true for "bell" sleeves (also called "bishop" sleeves). Similarly, the bodice can fit loosely in the bust and tightly at the waist, or the reverse. Negative ease (i.e., subtracting from the body measurements) is also possible to achieve a very close-fitting look, but more than 2 inches is not recommended.
By making the sweater match the desired measurements, an excellently fitting sweater can be made. The width of a knitted piece at a given height should equal the corresponding circumference; for example, if the desired bust circumference is 38", then the front or back width at that height should be 19" each. The width of the upper sleeve (just before the sleeve cap, if any) should likewise equal the desired circumference of the upper arm.
Having determined the size and shapes of the knitted pieces, the number of stitches in a row is given by the desired width multiplied by the knitting gauge (e.g., 5 st/inch). Similarly, the number of rows in a column may be determined by multiplying the desired height by the vertical gauge (e.g., 3 rows/inch).
Shaping
The human body has curvature, but woven fabric is flat and has little elasticity. To produce curvature in a smooth (unruffled) woven fabric, it is necessary to subtract or add wedges of fabric. Positive curvature (cupping, such as is needed at the bust point or over the rear) is produced by subtracting a wedge (a dart) with the point of the dart almost at the point of desired maximum curvature. The greater the angle of the wedge, the greater the local curvature. (The orientation of the dart is unimportant for the curvature, so it can be chosen to accentuate a style line of the garment.) Similarly, negative curvature (ruffling/saddle-shaping, as at a skirt hem, lower back or under the bust) is produced by adding a wedge (a flare). Although the base of individual wedges usually lies on a seam, sometimes wedges occur in pairs (diamonds) that are independent of the seams. Subtracting a diamond-shaped dart produces positive curvature at the outer points of the diamond, and negative curvature at the middle points that are brought together (good for the bust or back). Conversely, adding a diamond-shaped gusset produces negative curvature at its tips and positive curvature at its middle (useful in designing stuffed animals). Sometimes, the sharp, angular edges of the wedges are softened to form continuous princess seams.
Since knitted fabric is generally elastic, it conforms readily to the wearer's body without shaping. However, some shaping may be necessary when the knitted fabrics are unusually stiff (e.g., thick cable designs or heavily overstitched designs) or in regions of high curvature (e.g. sock heels). Ironically, shaping is much easier and less obvious with knitted fabrics than with woven cloth. Instead of cutting out wedges and sewing the edges together, knitters can add or subtract stitches; work short rows; or, most subtly of all, change the needle size to produce smaller/larger stitches in the desired "wedge" region.
Choosing the yarn
The choice of yarn affects the comfort of the sweater, since it affects its warmth, weight and ability to "breathe" (air exchange). Some yarns will also produce itching or even allergic reactions in some wearers.
The yarn affects the bulk and drape of the knitted fabric, as well as the visibility of stitches. Complicated stitch patterns are best seen with a smooth, highly spun yarn and may be invisible with "furry" yarns such as mohair or novelty yarns.
The washability of yarn affects its practicability. Thus, sweaters knitted for young children are usually knitted in acrylics, which are light in weight and washable.
The yarn will also determine the lifetime of the sweater (in general, highly spun yarns suffer less wear with time) and how well it will retain its shape (elastic yarns like wool are better than non-elastic yarns like cotton or silk).
Choosing colors
The choice of colors is critical to the design of a sweater.
The simplest choice is to use multiple shades of a single color (e.g., various shades of blue), perhaps accented with a contrasting color (e.g. flecks of yellow). The arrangement of shades on the sweater can have a significant visual effect, due to the principle of chiaroscuro; dark shades tend to recede and be smaller, whereas light shades advance and seem larger. For example, vertical stripes with a light color in the middle and dark colors on the sides have a slimming effect. Psychologically, bright colors tend to be associated with straightforward, innocent or extroverted personalities, whereas darker shades are associated with more thoughtful, experienced and introverted personalities.
The "temperature" of a color also affects its perceived depth. Warm colors have red or yellow tones (including orange and yellow-green) and are associated psychologically with warmth and energy. Cool colors have more bluish undertones (including purples, aquas and greens) and are associated psychologically with serene, calm personalities. Warm colors tend to advance relative to cool colors, when both are presented simultaneously.
Contrasting colors may be chosen in various ways. A common choice is to take a complementary colors from one of the several color wheels (e.g., blue and orange, green and red), or to choose a pairing that occurs in nature, e.g., yellow and red.
Choosing shapes
The designer has many choices for how to shape the sleeve length and cap, waistline/hemline and neckline/collar; these various choices and their visual effects are described in their individual entries. The overall shape (silhouette) of the garment is defined by the ease introduced at various points, as described above under "Fitting". In addition, a sweater may have ornamental lines/curves, even images. In general, these lines are chosen to achieve a balanced look; for example, well-chosen style lines can help compensate for body lines considered too long or too angular or too short or too rounded. However, visual effects may be idiosyncratic, and the knitter is encouraged to experiment.
Choosing an overall pattern
The scale of the overall pattern relative to the size of the whole sweater is a key variable in the "look" of the sweater. Large overall patterns eliminate the need for accent patterns (see next section) but may be too bold for some wearers. A small, fine pattern makes an excellent background for accent patterns, but may not be visible with a particular yarn, or may be too retiring for some wearers.
Choosing accent patterns
A sweater done uniformly in the same pattern overall is relatively simple and understated, which may be the desired effect. However, it is more usual to decorate the sleeve cuffs and either the neckline or the lower hemline with an accent pattern. The accent band can be rather wide (often ~1/3 of the total length) and its boundary can be straight or wavy/serrated.
Smaller boundaries (such as collars, tops of pockets, central seam in cardigan) may receive special ornamentation as well, e.g., cabling along its edges.
Embellishments
There are many types of ornamental embellishments that can modify the overall look of the sweater.
Collars and lapels are perhaps the most visually obvious embellishments. They frame the face, neck and shoulders, and complement the neckline and armhole lines.
The choice of closures is an important practical consideration and can also help define the sweater's style. Buttons and zippers are the most common choices for sweaters, but frogs, ties and belts are also seen.
Shoulder pads and other shaping devices are uncommon, but can be included to define a particular silhouette.
The fabric of the sweater can be ornamented with various textures, such as gathers, ruffles, pleats, ruching and shirring. Ornamental patterns can be added using beads, buttons, sequins, bobbles, ribbons and knots, as well as appliqué or cordwork. Overstitching (also known as Swiss darning) and other embroidery techniques allow for many visual effects that cannot be made with normal knitting, e.g., a circle of successively interlocking stitches.
Knitting is a method by which yarn is manipulated to create a textile or fabric. It is used in many types of garments. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine.
A knitting needle or knitting pin is a tool in hand-knitting to produce knitted fabrics. They generally have a long shaft and taper at their end, but they are not nearly as sharp as sewing needles. Their purpose is two-fold. The long shaft holds the active (unsecured) stitches of the fabric, to prevent them from unravelling, whereas the tapered ends are used to form new stitches. Most commonly, a new stitch is formed by inserting the tapered end through an active stitch, catching a loop of fresh yarn and drawing it through the stitch; this secures the initial stitch and forms a new active stitch in its place. In specialized forms of knitting the needle may be passed between active stitches being held on another needle, or indeed between/through inactive stitches that have been knit previously.
A sweater or pullover, also called a jumper, is a piece of clothing, typically with long sleeves, made of knitted or crocheted material, that covers the upper part of the body. When sleeveless, the garment is often called a slipover or sweater vest.
The Aran jumper is a style of jumper that takes its name from the Aran Islands off the west coast of Ireland. A traditional Aran Jumper usually is off-white in colour, with cable patterns on the body and sleeves. Originally the jumpers were knitted using unscoured wool that retained its natural oils (lanolin) which made the garments water-resistant and meant they remained wearable even when wet.
A guernsey, or gansey, is a seaman's knitted woollen sweater, similar to a jersey, which originated in the Channel Island of the same name, sometimes known as a knit-frock in Cornwall, especially Polperro.
Fair Isle (/fɛəraɪ̯l/) is a traditional knitting technique used to create patterns with multiple colours. It is named after Fair Isle, one of the Shetland islands. Fair Isle knitting gained considerable popularity when the Prince of Wales wore Fair Isle jumpers in public in 1921. Traditional Fair Isle patterns have a limited palette of five or so colours, use only two colours per row, are worked in the round, and limit the length of a run of any particular colour.
In knitting, the word gauge is used both in hand knitting and machine knitting; the latter, technical abbreviation GG, refers to "Knitting Machines" fineness size. In both cases, the term refers to the number of stitches per inch, not the size of the finished garment. In both cases, the gauge is measured by counting the number of stitches or the number of needles over several inches then dividing by the number of inches in the width of the sample.
Lace knitting is a style of knitting characterized by stable "holes" in the fabric arranged with consideration of aesthetic value. Lace is sometimes considered the pinnacle of knitting, because of its complexity and because woven fabrics cannot easily be made to have holes. Famous examples include the Orenburg shawl and the wedding ring shawl of Shetland knitting, a shawl so fine that it could be drawn through a wedding ring. Shetland knitted lace became extremely popular in Victorian England when Queen Victoria became a Shetland lace enthusiast. Her enthusiasm resulted i.a. in her choosing knitted lacework for presents; e.g. when in ca. 1897 the Queen gave a lace shawl as a present to American abolitionist Harriet Tubman. From there, knitting patterns for the shawls were printed in English women's magazines where they were copied in Iceland with single ply wool.
Cable knitting is a style of knitting in which textures of crossing layers are achieved by permuting stitches. For example, given four stitches appearing on the needle in the order ABCD, one might cross the first two the next two, so that in subsequent rows those stitches appear in the new order CDAB.
Slip-stitch knitting is a family of knitting techniques that use slip stitches to make multiple fabrics simultaneously, to make extra-long stitches, and/or to carry over colors from an earlier row.
In knitting, an increase is the creation of one or more new stitches, which may be done by various methods that create distinctive effects in the fabric. Most knitting increases either lean towards the left or the right.
In knitting, ribbing is a pattern in which vertical stripes of stockinette stitch alternate with vertical stripes of reverse stockinette stitch. These two types of stripes may be separated by other stripes in which knit and purl stitches alternate vertically; such plissé stripes add width and depth to ribbing but not more elasticity.
In knitting, binding off, or casting off, is a family of techniques for ending a column of stitches. Binding off is typically used to define the final edge of a knitted fabric, although it may also be used in other contexts, e.g., in making button holes. In principle, binding off is the opposite of casting on, but the techniques are generally not mirror images of one another. Sometimes, however, they can produce a mirror image appearance.
In knitting, a short row is a row that is not fully knitted; the work is turned before reaching the end of the row. When working short rows, technique must be employed to prevent holes or gaps where the work is turned. There are several ways to do this. Among the most common are (1) Wrap and Turn, (2) German short rows and (3) Japanese short rows.
Knitted fabric is a textile that results from knitting, the process of inter-looping of yarns or inter-meshing of loops. Its properties are distinct from woven fabric in that it is more flexible and can be more readily constructed into smaller pieces, making it ideal for socks and hats.
In knitting, steeking is a shortcut used to knit garments such as sweaters in the round without interruption for openings or sleeves until the end. After completing a tube, a straight line is cut along the center of a column of stitches, in order to make room for an opening or place to attach another piece. The steek itself is a bridge of extra stitches, in which the cut is made, and is usually 6-10 stitches wide. This technique was developed by the knitters of the Shetland archipelago and is particularly associated with Fair Isle sweaters, although it can be used for solid colors as well.
A lopapeysa or Icelandic sweater is an Icelandic style of sweater originating in early or mid-20th century, at a time when imports had displaced older and more traditional Icelandic clothing and people began to search for new ways to utilize the plentiful native wool. The design has since become a national icon for Icelandic cultural identity.
Hand knitting is a form of knitting, in which the knitted fabric is produced by hand using needles.
Cowichan knitting is a form of knitting characteristic of the Cowichan people of southeastern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The distinctively patterned, heavy-knit Cowichan sweaters, popular among British Columbians and tourists, are produced using this method. Cowichan knitting is an acculturated art form, a combination of European textile techniques and Salish spinning and weaving methods. From this union, new tools, techniques and designs developed over the years.
Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts, arising in the Paleolithic Era. Although usually associated with clothing and household linens, sewing is used in a variety of crafts and industries, including shoemaking, upholstery, sailmaking, bookbinding and the manufacturing of some kinds of sporting goods. Sewing is the fundamental process underlying a variety of textile arts and crafts, including embroidery, tapestry, quilting, appliqué and patchwork.
References
Newton D. (1998) Designing Knitwear, Taunton Press. ISBN1-56158-265-4
Righetti M. (1990) Sweater Design in Plain English, St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN0-312-05164-6
Budd A. (2004) The Knitter's Handy Book of Sweater Patterns: Basic Designs in Multiple Sizes & Gauges, Interweave Press. ISBN1-931499-43-8
Epstein N. (1999) Nicky Epstein's Knitted Embellishments: 350 Appliques, Borders, Cords and More!, Interweave Press. ISBN1-883010-39-X
(2002) Vogue Knitting: The Ultimate Knitting Book, 2nd. ed., Sixth and Spring Books. ISBN1-931543-16-X
Zimmerman E (1973) Knitting Without Tears: Basic Techniques and Easy-to-Follow Directions for Garments to Fit All Sizes, Fireside Press. ISBN0-684-13505-1
June Hemmons Hiatt (1988) The Principles of Knitting, Simon and Schuster, pp.433–448. ISBN0-671-55233-3
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