Tanker war

Tanker war
Part of the Iran–Iraq War
Date 1981 – 4 August 1988 [1] Location Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Sea of Oman Result Iraqi coalition victory [2]
Belligerents
Iran Supported by: Pakistan [3] [4]	Iraq Supported by: United States Saudi Arabia Kuwait
Units involved
Iranian Navy IRGC Navy Iranian Air Force	Iraqi Navy Iraqi Air Force United States Navy Royal Saudi Air Force

The tanker war, part of the larger Iran–Iraq War, was a series of military attacks by Iran and Iraq against merchant vessels in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz from 1981 to 1988. Iraq was responsible for 283 attacks while Iran accounted for 168. ^[1]

History

See also: Iran–Iraq War

The Iran-Iraq war began in September 1980. ^[1] Before 1984, attacks against shipping had occurred, albeit on a much smaller scale. ^[5] In December 1980, UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim appealed to Iran and Iraq to ensure the security of peaceful shipping in the Persian Gulf. ^[5] At that time, Iran assured other countries that it would keep the Strait of Hormuz open. ^[5]

In his 1988 review paper naval affairs analyst Ronald O'Rouke wrote that "Iran trapped or destroyed many Iraqi ships in port in the early stages of the war. But Iraq started the tanker war in the Gulf proper in 1981 by initiating attacks on ships steaming to or from Iranian ports at the extreme northern end of the Gulf. Iraq continued these attacks into 1984 without a parallel Iranian response at sea. In March of that year, however, Iraq increased the rate of its attacks and expanded their geographic scope by attacking ships serving more southerly Iranian points, particularly the oil-loading complex at Kharg Island. Two months later, Iran initiated its own attacks, and the tanker war became a two-way affair." ^[1]

Iraq broadened the tanker war in 1984 ^[6] by attacking the oil terminal and oil tankers at Kharg Island. ^[7] Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing about foreign intervention against Iran; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed. ^[7] Kuwait and Saudi Arabia supported Iraq against Iran. The United States intervened in the conflict in 1986 to protect Kuwaiti tankers, and engaged in a confrontation with Iran. ^[8]

Both sides had declared an "exclusion zone", meaning areas in which they had warned ships from entering. Iraq declared the area around Iran's Kharg Island to be an exclusion zone. ^[9] Kharg Island hosted Iran's principal oil shipment port. ^[10] Iraq gave precise definition, in coordinates, of this exclusion zone and gave advance notification to all countries. ^[11] However, Iraq did not designate any safe passage routes in this zone. ^[11]

Iran declared all waters within 40 miles of its coast to be its exclusion zone. It instructed ships headed for non-Iranian ports to sail west of this line. ^[10] While Iran also did not designate any safe passages in its exclusion zone, this was unnecessary. Iran's exclusion zone allowed for ships to enter and exit the Gulf, and essentially only kept such foreign ships out of its own waters. ^[12]

Iran's exclusion zone made it easier for Iraq to target Iranian ships. It allowed Iraq to assume that any ship in Iran's territorial waters must be going to (or coming from) an Iranian port. ^[13]

War studies scholar Stephen Phillips writes that "In January 1987, the Kuwaiti government proposed a clever scheme to deter Iranian attacks against their shipping. They asked the United States if they could reflag Kuwaiti tankers as American and receive the protection of the U.S. Navy. The administration of President Ronald Reagan debated this idea but finally agreed to it on March 7, 1987." ^[14] These are known to O'Rourke as "reflagged Kuwaiti ships".

On 17 May 1987, 37 US sailors were killed in an Iraqi aircraft attack on the USS Stark. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein apologized, saying that the pilot had mistaken the US vessel for an Iranian tanker. ^[15]

United Nations Security Council Resolution 598, was adopted unanimously on 20 July 1987, which engendered Operation Earnest Will (24 July 1987 – 26 September 1988), a successful US effort to protect Kuwaiti merchandise and vessel, because as noted by O'Rourke: "Aside from Iranian shipping, the most frequent victims have been ships steaming under the world's predominant flags of convenience." ^[1] Western-led convoy tactics with armed guard vessels were used for protection in the latter stages of the Tanker War. ^[1] In 1987 the use of towed, radar-deflecting decoys and other passive countermeasures was successfully initiated. ^[1]

In total, well over 100 sailors were killed and a similar number wounded. ^[1] More than 30 million tons of cargo was damaged from 1981 through 1987. ^[1] It is in this conflict that in 1987 Iran perfected the art of speedboat attacks, and concentrated "their fire on the crew compartments of their target ships." ^[1] Iran also used Chinese-made shore-based Silkworm missiles to good effect. ^[1]

Flag	Attacks sustained [1] [16]
Liberia	61
Iran	46
Panama	41
Cyprus	39
Greece	26
Malta	9
Kuwait	8
KSA	8
Turkey	7
Norway	7
Singapore	6
UK	6
Japan	6
South Korea	5
FRG	5

List of attacks

1984

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1984-03-01	Charming	United Kingdom	Un­known	Iraqi missile	aground	[17] [18]
1984-03-01(?)	Sema-G	Turkey	Un­known	Iraqi missile	set afire	[17] [19]
1984-03-04	APJ Ambika	India	16000	Iraqi missile	sunk	[17] [20]
1984-03-29	Iran Dahr	Iran	12257/71	Iraqi missile	damaged	[21]
1984-05-27	Savoy Dean	Liberia	19291/68	Iraqi missile	minor damage	[21]
1984-06-03	Büyük Hun	Turkey	80683/77	Iraqi missiles	severe damage	[21]
1984-06-03	Giant Kirn	Panama	32107/71	Unidentified missile	set afire	[22]
1984-06-06	Dashaki	Liberia	19291/68	Iraqi missile	severe damage	[21]
1984-06-10	Kazimah	Kuwait	160010/82	Unidentified a/c	severe damage	[21]
1984-06-24	Alexander the Great	Greece	152372/73	Iraqi Exocet missile	severe damage	[21]
1984-06-27	Tiburón	Liberia	125389/73	Iraqi missile	severe damage	[21]
1984-07-01	Al Kabeer	Panama	16575/65	Iraqi a/c	aground	[21]
1984-07-01	Sitia Venture	Panama	15991/66	Iraqi a/c	aground	[21]
1984-07-01	Alexandra Dyo	Cyprus	13316/69	Iraqi a/c	attacked	[21]
1984-07-02	Won Jin	South Korea	6164/74	Iraqi missiles	severe damage	[21]
1984-07-05	Primrose	Liberia	122203/76	Unidentified missiles	slight damage	[21]
1984-07-10	British Renown	United Kingdom	122203/76	Iranian a/c	slight damage	[21]
1984-08-18	Endeavour	Panama	47310/76	Unidentified missile	set afire	[22]
1984-08-24	Amethyst	Cyprus	31280/63	Unidentified missile	set afire	[22]
1984-08-27	Cleo 1	Panama	20880/59	Unidentified missile	set afire	[22]
1984-09-11	St. Tobias	Liberia	115025/71	Unidentified missile	minor damage	[22]
1984-09-12	Good Wind	Panama	11525/70	Iraqi missile	set afire	[22]
1984-09-16	Med Heron	Liberia	60655/77	Unidentified missile	Un­known	[22]
1984-09-16	Royal Colombo	South Korea	74474/75	Unidentified missile	Un­known	[22]
1984-10-08	World Knight	Liberia	114573/75	Iraqi missile	severe damage [a]	[22] [23]
1984-10-11	Jag Pari	India	20991/82	Iranian (?) bomb	minor damage	[22] [23]
1984-10-12	Gaz Fountain	Panama	23796/69	Unidentified missile	set afire	[22] [24]
1984-10-15	Sivand	Iran	108721/71	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[22] [25]

1985

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1985-11-05	Canaria	Spain	151225	Iraqi Exocet missile	severe damage [a] [b]	[26]

1987

See also: USS Stark incident and Bridgeton incident

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1987-07-24	SS Bridgeton	United States		Iranian mine	damaged
1987-08-10	Texaco Caribbean	Panama		Iranian mine	damaged	[27] [28] [29] [30]
1987-08-15	Anita			Iranian mine	sunk	[31] [32] [33]
1987-08-30	Sanandaj	Iran	129770/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-09-01	Astro Pegasus	South Korea	42510/75	Iranian w/s g/f	damaged	[34]
1987-09-01	Bigorange XIV	Panama	197/56	Iraqi a/c	sunk	[34]
1987-09-01	Munguia	Spain	140277/77	Iranian PG	set afire	[34]
1987-09-01	Star Ray	Cyprus	99011/70	Iraqi missile	damaged	[34]
1987-09-02	Nisshin Maru	Japan	103099/80	Iranian PG	damaged	[34]
1987-09-02	Dafni	Greece	48473/57	Iranian boats	set afire	[34]
1987-09-02	Diamond Marine	Liberia	101416/74	Iranian boats	holed	[34]
1987-09-02	Jolly Rubino	Italy	19418/78	Iranian boats	minor damage	[34]
1987-09-02	Leonidas Glory	Cyprus	3717/73	Iranian boats	minor damage	[34]
1987-09-09	Haven	Cyprus	109700/73	Iranian PG	damaged	[34]
1987-09-20	Khark 2	Iran	137895/70	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-09-20	Petroship B	Saudi Arabia	25614/75	Iranian PG	minor damage	[34]
1987-09-20	Shirvan	Iran	41439/79	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-09-21	Gentle Breeze	British Hong Kong	57462/70	Iranian PG	severe damage	[34]
1987-09-21	Marissa I	Panama	181/69	Iranian mine	sunk	[34]
1987-09-27	Coral Cape	Cyprus	112825/74	Iraqi missile (2)	damaged	[34]
1987-09-27	Iran Sepah	Iran	19702/76	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-09-27	Merlin	Cyprus	110037/71	Iraqi missile (2)	damaged	[34]
1987-09-27	Shirvan	Iran	41439/79	Iraqi missile	damaged	[34]
1987-09-29	Khark	Iran	127453/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-09-29	Koriana	Greece	38629/85	Iranian w/s	slight damage	[34]
1987-09-30	Western City	Liberia	105803/75	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-01	Nichiharu Maru	Japan	120694/73	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-01	Johar	Pakistan	49635/76	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-01	Shenton Bluff	Australia	150/79	Iraqi missile	severe damage	[34]
1987-10-02	Felicity	Cyprus	53226/68	Iraqi missile	set afire	[34]
1987-10-02	Spic Emerald	India	11712/83	Iranian PG	set afire	[34]
1987-10-05	Brazil Star	Panama	77294/72	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-05	Seawise Giant	Liberia	238558/76	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-05	Shining Star	Cyprus	128929/71	Iraqi missile	severe damage	[34]
1987-10-05	World Admiral	Liberia	106673/74	Iraqi missile	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-08	Tomoe 8	Panama	5267/86	Iranian PG	set afire	[34]
1987-10-10	Rova	Liberia	105286/75	Iraqi missiles	severe damage	[34]
1987-10-12	Marianthi M.	Panama	13006/65	Iraqi missile	damaged	[34]
1987-10-13	Atlantic Peace	Liberia	43943/83	Iranian PG g/f	minor damage	[34]
1987-10-14	Pegasus I	Liberia	104918/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[34]
1987-10-15	Sungari	Liberia	124085/75	Iranian missile	set afire	[34]
1987-10-16	Sea Isle City	United States	55454/81	Iranian missile	moderate damage	[34]
1987-10-23	Prosperventure L.	Panama	27333/87	Iranian PG	set afire	[34]
1987-11-04	Taftan	Iran	141883/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[35]
1987-11-06	Grand Wisdom	Panama	51121/76	Iranian w/s	minor damage	[35]
1987-11-11	Fortuneship L.	Greece	118216/75	Iraqi GM (3)	damaged	[35]
1987-11-11	Liquid Bulk Explorer	Panama	7060/72	Iranian PG	slight damage	[35]
1987-11-12	Yousef [c]	Iran	584/84	Iraqi a/c	hit	[35]
1987-11-13	Salvital [d]	Singapore	742/76	Iraqi GM	severe damage	[35]
1987-11-15	Lucy	Liberia	36512/86	Iranian PG	damaged	[35]
1987-11-16	Esso Freeport	Bahamas	122967/74	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[35]
1987-11-16	Filikon L.	Greece	41330/76	Iranian PGs	moderate damage	[35]
1987-11-19	Salvenus [d]	Singapore	699/78	Iraqi GMs	severe damage	[35]
1987-11-20	Tabriz	Iran	41440/80	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[35]
1987-11-22	Andromeda	Greece	38627/84	Iranian PG	damaged	[35]
1987-11-23	Fundulea	Romania	6253/80	Iranian PGs	damaged	[35]
1987-11-23	Uni-Master	Panama	11648/77	Iranian w/s	slight damage	[35]
1987-11-26	Umm al Jathathel	Kuwait	47169/83	Iranian w/s	Un­known	[35]
1987-11-29	Khark 4	Iran	127450/73	Iraqi a/c	moderate damage	[35]
1987-12-02	Anax	Cyprus	122936/72	Iraqi a/c	slight damage	[35]
1987-12-04	Actinia	Cyprus	109567/75	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[35]
1987-12-06	Estelle Mærsk	Denmark	28010/87	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[35]
1987-12-06	Norman Atlantic	Singapore	42093/73	Iranian PGs	sunk	[35]
1987-12-08	Alamoot	Iran	163173/77	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[35]
1987-12-09	Susangird	Iran	111287/73	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[35]
1987-12-11	Tharaleos	Greece	51372/69	Iranian FF	minor damage	[35]
1987-12-12	Pivot	Cyprus	109700/75	Iranian FF	damaged	[35]
1987-12-15	Mimi M.	Cyprus	16246/74	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[35]
1987-12-16	Taftan	Iran	141883/73	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[35]
1987-12-16	World Produce	Greece	17277/84	Iranian PG	moderate damage	[35]
1987-12-17	Island Transporter	Maldives	9714/68	Iranian PGs	damaged	[35]
1987-12-18	Free Enterprise	Malta	113780/72	Iraqi a/c	went aground	[35]
1987-12-18	Happy Kari	Norway	140227/74	Iranian PGs	set afire	[35]
1987-12-18	Saudi Splendour	Liberia	125394/75	Iranian PG	moderate damage	[35]
1987-12-19	Karama Mærsk	Denmark	167728/77	Iranian PGs	slight damage	[35]
1987-12-22	British Respect	Gibraltar	136601/74	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[35]
1987-12-22	Burmah Enterprise	Bermuda	231629/78	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[35]
1987-12-22	Seawise Giant	Liberia	238558/76	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[35]
1987-12-22	World Petrobras	Liberia	193778/77	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[35]
1987-12-22	Stena Concordia	Liberia	122199/73	Iranian FF	damaged	[35]
1987-12-23	Berge Big	Norway	136364/75	Iranian PGs	set afire	[35]
1987-12-25	Hyundai No. 7	South Korea	11686/78	Iranian PGs	set afire	[35]
1987-12-25	Nejmat el Petrol	Saudi Arabia	12964/64	Iranian PGs	set afire	[35]
1987-12-27	Stilikon	Panama	96747/64	Iraqi GM	set afire	[35]
1987-12-31	Iran Sedaghat	Iran	4474/71	Iraqi a/c	decoy	[35]

1988

1988-01-01 to 1988-03-27

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1988-01-01	Alga	Malta	16134/72	Iraqi GM	slight damage	[35]
1988-01-10	Khark 3	Iran	137895/71	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[35]
1988-01-12	United Venture	Cyprus	13161/69	Iranian GM	severe damage	[35]
1988-01-14	Petrobulk Pioneer	Liberia	20446/80	Iranian w/s	damaged aft	[35]
1988-01-15	Atlantic Charisma	Liberia	23127/87	Iranian w/s	damaged	[35]
1988-01-15	Igloo Espoo	Norway	10105/85	Iranian PGs	damaged	[35]
1988-01-16	Rainbow	Liberia	7589/82	Iranian PGs	severe damage	[35]
1988-01-22	Havpil [e]	Singapore	10977/69	Iranian PG	minor damage	[35]
1988-01-22	Topaz	Panama	85690/76	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[35]
1988-01-22	Torm Rottina	Denmark	20036/76	Iranian PGs	attacked	[36]
1988-01-27	Coral Cape	Cyprus	112825/74	Iraqi imissile	damaged	[36]
1988-01-29	Khark	Iran	116404/75	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[36]
1988-01-29	Khark 5	Iran	138394/75	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[36]
1988-01-30	Mare [e]	Panama	9111/72	Iranian PGs	sunk	[36]
1988-02-03	Makran	Iran	16000/74	Iraqi missile	set afire	[36]
1988-02-03	Petrobulk Ruler	Norway	20505/75	Iranian PG	damaged	[36]
1988-02-05	Tavistock	Panama	87464/71	Iranian PGs	damaged	[36]
1988-02-07	Khark 5	Iran	138394/75	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[36]
1988-02-07	Diane	Liberia	38241/87	Iranian FF	set afire	[36]
1988-02-09	Shir Kooh	Iran	140465/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[36]
1988-02-09	Veronique	Liberia	38795/76	Iranian FF	damaged aft	[36]
1988-02-11	Happy Kari	Norway	38795/76	Iranian PGs	set afire	[36]
1988-02-12	Kate Mærsk [e]	Denmark	167207/76	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[36]
1988-02-15	Soleiman	Iran	1019/84	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[36]
1988-03-08	Tenacity	Malta	41195/65	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-15	Trade Fortitude	Liberia	113950/72	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[36]
1988-03-18	Berge Lord	Norway	138008/73	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-18	Kyrnicos	Cyprus	41922/67	Iraqi a/c	moderate damage	[36]
1988-03-18	Maria 2	Panama	22845/80	Iranian PGs	set afire	[36]
1988-03-18	Neptune Subaru	Singapore	22845/80	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-19	Avaj	Iran	162028/75	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[36]
1988-03-19	Sanandaj	Iran	129770/73	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[36]
1988-03-20	Atlantic Peace	Liberia	43943/83	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-21	Fumi	Liberia	36674/84	Iranian PGs	set afire	[36]
1988-03-21	Iberian Reefer	Spain	7949/85	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-22	Havglimt	Singapore	28941/78	Iranian w/s	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-22	Stavros G.L.	Greece	163810/76	Iranian PGs	set afire	[36]
1988-03-23	Odysseas H.	Cyprus	18876/72	Iranian PGs	severe damage [a]	[36]
1988-03-27	Jainarayan Vyas	India	15035/75	Iranian PGs	moderate damage	[36]

1988-03-28 to 1988-08-04

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1988-03-28	Karama Mærsk	Denmark	167728/77	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-28	Golar Kansai	Liberia	98905/72	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[36]
1988-03-30	Anax	Cyprus	122936/72	Iraqi a/c	disabled	[36]
1988-03-31	Haven	Cyprus	109700/73	Iraqi FF	aground	[36]
1988-04-12	Sagheera	Saudi Arabia	20817/81	Iranian PGs	set afire	[37]
1988-04-18	Omnium Pride	Cyprus	13858/71	Iranian PGs	set afire	[37]
1988-04-18	Willi Tide	United States	283/79	Iran	attacked	[37]
1988-04-18	York Marine	British Hong Kong	60814/75	Iranian w/s	set afire	[37]
1988-04-19	Fal V	United Arab Emirates	7214/72	Iranian PGs	damaged	[37]
1988-04-24	Sea Trader	Liberia	19482/76	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-05-11	Khark	Iran	116404/75	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[37]
1988-05-11	Iran Nahad	Iran	11205/70	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-12	Sea Sapphire [f]	Panama	11205/70	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Argosy	Cyprus	71080/70	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Barcelona	Spain	122770/72	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Beaufort [g]	Belgium	475/78	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Safir [g]	Belgium	475/78	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Scan Partner [g]	Panama	499/79	Iraqi a/c	sunk	[37]
1988-05-14	Seawise Giant	Liberia	238558/79	Iraqi a/c	severe damage	[37]
1988-05-14	Burmah Endeavour	Bahamas	231269/77	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[37]
1988-05-16	Bisoton	Iran	112445/72	Iraqi a/c	minor damage	[37]
1988-05-18	Ace Chemi	Panama	112445/72	Iranian PGs	set afire	[37]
1988-05-19	Barge Strand	Norway	43849/82	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-05-26	Mundogas Rio	Liberia	12251/67	Iranian PGs	damaged	[37]
1988-05-26	Don Miguel	Malta	10526/76	Iranian PGs	damaged	[37]
1988-06-04	Shoush	Iran	113788/72	Iraqi a/c	Un­known	[37]
1988-06-09	Salverve [c]	Singapore	742/76	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[37]
1988-06-11	Dhaulagiri	West Germany	7895/82	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-06-11	Esso Demetia	United Kingdom	125293/73	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-06-11	Iran Fallahi	Iran	17716/72	Iraq a/c	Un­known	[37]
1988-06-14	Neptune Subaru	Singapore	51894/86	Iranian PGs	moderate damage	[37]
1988-07-01	Khark 4	Iran	127450/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[37]
1988-07-01	Fortuneship L	Greece	118216/75	Iraqi a/c	damaged	[37]
1988-07-03	Berge Strand	Norway	43849/82	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-07-07	Fellowship L	Greece	118215/74	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[37]
1988-07-08	Star Ray	Cyprus	107432/70	Iraqi a/c	set afire	[37]
1988-07-12	Universal Monarch	Panama	40840/81	Iranian PGs	damaged	[37]
1988-07-15	Sea Victory	Liberia	43456/69	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]
1988-08-04	Berge Lord	Norway	138008/73	Iranian PGs	minor damage	[37]

Notes

1. constructive loss
2. Sold off and renamed Canari, exploded while scrapping on 1986-08-11. See:zh-tw:大仁宮廢船爆炸事件
3. tug
4. salvage tug
5. hit in error
6. tug towing Iran Nahad
7. tugs damaged by explosion of Barcelona

References

Footnotes

1. O'Rourke, Ronald (May 1988). "The Tanker War". Proceedings of the USNI. 114 (5): 1023.
2. Strømmen-Bakhtiar, Abbas. Introduction to Digital Transformation: and its impact on society. Informing Science Press. p. 244. ISBN   978-1-68110-050-0.
3. Allam, Shah (October–December 2004). "Iran-Pakistan Relations: Political and Strategic Dimensions" (PDF). Strategic Analysis. 28 (4). The Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses: 526. doi:10.1080/09700160408450157. S2CID   154492122 . Retrieved 20 October 2013.
4. Mir, Furrukh (2011). Half Truth. [u.s.]: iUniverse. ISBN   978-1450286459.
5. Boczek 1989, p. 244.
6. Roach, J. Ashley; Greenwood, Christopher J.; Lagoni, Rainer; Meron, Theodor (20–23 April 1988), "Missiles on Target; the Law of Targeting and the Tanker War", Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, 82: 154–169, doi:10.1017/S0272503700072980, JSTOR   25658421, S2CID   159309793
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12. Leckow 1988, p. 639.
13. Dekker & Post 1992, p. 191.
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Sources

• Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (1989). "Law of Warfare at Sea and Neutrality:Lessons from the Gulf War". Ocean Development and International Law. 20 (3): 239–271. doi:10.1080/00908328909545892.
• Dekker, Ige F.; Post, Harry H. G., eds. (1992). The Gulf War of 1980-1988: The Iran-Iraq War in International Legal Perspective. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN   0-7923-1334-8.
• Leckow, Ross (July 1988). "The Iran-Iraq Conflict in the Gulf: The Law of War Zones". International & Comparative Law Quarterly. 37 (3): 629–644. doi:10.1093/iclqaj/37.3.629.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1984). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 21 (4): 396. JSTOR   44891106.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1985b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (2): 145–146. JSTOR   44891147.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1988a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (1): 37. JSTOR   44889197.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1988b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (2): 195. JSTOR   44891248.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1988c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (4): 402. JSTOR   44892028.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1989). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 26 (1): 83. JSTOR   44892063.
• Zatarain, Lee Allen (2008). Tanker War: America's First Conflict with Iran, 1987–88. Casemate Publishers. ISBN   9781932033847.

Further reading

• El-Shazly, Nadia El-Sayed (1998), The Gulf Tanker War: Iran and Iraq's Maritime Swordplay, Springer, ISBN   9781349263042
• Navias, Martin S.; Hooton, E. R. (1996), Tanker Wars: Assault on Merchant Shipping During the Iran-Iraq Crisis, 1980-88, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN   9781860640322
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1985a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (1): 51. JSTOR   44888933.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1985c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (3): 306. JSTOR   44891192.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1985d). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (4): 399. JSTOR   44891899.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1986a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (1): 30. JSTOR   44894586.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1986b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (2): 140. JSTOR   44889022.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1986c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (3): 271. JSTOR   44891948.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1986d). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (4): 378. JSTOR   44889078.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1987a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (1): 71. JSTOR   44889099.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1987b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (2): 164. JSTOR   44894620.
• Silverstone, Paul H. (1987c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (4): 358. JSTOR   44891264.
• Walker, George K. (2000), "The Tanker War, 1980–88: Law and Policy", International Law Studies, 74, U.S. Naval War College
• Wang, Erik B. (1995). "The Iran-Iraq War Revisited: Some Reflections on the Role of International Law". Canadian Yearbook of International Law. 32.