Telenursing

Last updated

New telecommunication equipment for nurses and doctors at Health Sciences North/Horizon Sante-Nord (HSN) in Ontario, Canada. Technology and nursing.jpg
New telecommunication equipment for nurses and doctors at Health Sciences North/Horizon Santé-Nord (HSN) in Ontario, Canada.

Telenursing refers to the use of information technology in the provision of nursing services whenever physical distance exists between patient and nurse, or between any number of nurses. As a field, it is part of telemedicine, and has many points of contacts with other medical and non-medical applications, such as telediagnosis, teleconsultation, and telemonitoring. [1] The field, however, is still being developed as the information on telenursing isn't comprehensive enough.

Contents

Telenursing is growing in many countries because of the preoccupation in driving down the costs of health care, an increase in the number of aging and chronically ill population, and the increase in coverage of health care to distant, rural, small or sparsely populated regions. Among its many benefits, telenursing may help solve increasing shortages of nurses; to reduce distances and save travel time, and to keep patients out of hospital. A greater degree of job satisfaction has been registered among telenurses. [2]

Telenursing and nursing informatics

Nursing informatics, a branch of health informatics, has been defined by Judith Rae Graves and Sheila Corcoran as "a combination of computer science, information science, and nursing science designed to assist in the management and processing of nursing data, information, and knowledge to support the practice of nursing and the delivery of nursing care". [3] Telenursing is a potential application of nursing informatics and as such, nursing informatics has served as a critical background concept its development. [4]

Applications

Home care

One of the most distinctive telenursing applications is home care. For example, patients who are immobilized, or live in remote or difficult to reach places, citizens who have chronic ailments, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, congestive heart disease, or debilitating diseases, such as neural degenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease or ALS), may stay at home and be "visited" and assisted regularly by a nurse via videoconferencing, internet or videophone. Other applications of home care are the care of patients in immediate post-surgical situations, the care of wounds, ostomies or disabled individuals. In normal home health care, one nurse is able to visit up to 5-7 patients per day. Using telenursing, one nurse can “visit” 12-16 patients in the same amount of time.

Case management

A common application of telenursing is also used by call centers operated by managed care organizations, which are staffed by registered nurses who act as case managers or perform patient triage, information and counseling as a means of regulating patient access and flow and decrease the use of emergency rooms.

Telephone triage

Telephone triage refers to symptom or clinically based calls. Clinicians perform symptom assessment by asking detailed questions about the patient's illness or injury. The clinician's task is to estimate and/or rule out urgent symptoms. They may use pattern recognition and other problem-solving process as well. Clinicians may utilize guidelines, in paper or electronic format, to determine how urgent the symptoms are. Telephone triage requires clinicians to evaluate symptoms and provide health advice which guides patients to the appropriate level of care, (emergent, urgent, or nonurgent) according to their condition and symptoms. Telephone triage staff also provides advice for self‐care at home for nonurgent patients. [5] It may involve educating and advising clients, and making safe, effective, and appropriate dispositions—all by telephone. Telephone triage takes place in settings as diverse as emergency rooms, ambulance services, large call centers, physician offices, clinics, student health centers and hospices.

Telephone Triage Reducing Emergency Department Visits

Telephone triage services are beneficial in decreasing the amount of nonemergent patient visits to emergency departments. Emergency departments typically experience high patient volumes, many of which are nonemergent. Emergency department waiting areas may become overcrowded with patients due to the high patient volumes, resulting in many patients leaving without being seen. [6] The telephone triage staff has access to the electronic health records generated by a health system encounters. The ability to access patients’ health records helps the triage staff evaluate the patient more efficient due to the provided information such as allergies and comorbidities. Having access to patients’ health records provides demographic information which allows the triage staff to send emergency services to the patient if necessary. Telephone triage service can help to decrease lower-acuity patient visits to an emergency department by properly evaluating patients symptoms and guiding them to the appropriate level of care. [6]

Countries using telephone triage

An international telenursing survey was completed in 2005, reporting that the 719 responding full-time and part-time registered nurses and advanced practice nurses worked as a telenurse in 36 countries around the world. 68% were reported to be working in the United States, compared to only 0.6% in Finland. Some of these 36 countries include Australia, Canada, Norway, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Iran, Sweden, and the Netherlands. [7]

In Australia

In Australia, telephone triages are conducted in all states of Australia, the largest services are federal and state government funded, known as Nurse-On-Call in Victoria, Healthdirect in all other states and territories except Queensland where the state government supports its own separate service known as 13HEALTH. The first telenursing triage was conducted in Western Australia in 1999, where Triage nurses would estimate patient complexity and refer them to Fremantle Hospital. Due to the remoteness of the Australian landscape it is vital that residents living in rural areas have access to clinical support and care. Telenursing allows nurses to overcome the barriers of distance and gives them the opportunity assist those who are unable to access health care clinics or services due to either the late hour or the distance. [8]

Mental health

Telenursing has also been utilized in mental health applications. Telepsychiatry (also known as telemental health) can be effective in improving symptoms and quality of life among people with mental health disorders. [9] [10] [11] [12] It is especially useful in many environments with limited access to care, including rural areas, emergency rooms, natural disasters and crisis zones, and warfronts. This technology delivers mental health care in areas that would otherwise not have any mental health care resources. Much of the time, this use involves live interfacing between patient and care giver, whether in video conference or over text thread. In addition, use of asynchronous telepsychiatry, in which a detailed interview with the patient is video taped and reviewed by a provider afterwards, has also proven an effective use of telepsychiatry. [13] Telepsychiatry improves integrated and patient-centered care, allowing for the incorporation of mental health resources into the overall treatment of the patient. [14]

In addition to direct patient care, telenursing and telepsychiatry, the use of technology in mental health has made a significant impact on crisis intervention and suicide prevention. Organizations such as Crisis Text Line have incorporated text chatting into crisis therapy, and have opened up a new line of resources available to people in mental health crises. This is especially significant for adolescent mental health, as many teens are more likely to utilize text message for therapy than in-person or over the phone. [15]

Coronavirus pandemic

On March 27, 2020, legislation was passed in the United States to assist in the growth of Telehealth capabilities across the country. [16] The CDC recommends that telehealth be used whenever possible to stop the spread of Corona Virus. [17] Although Telehealth is not a new concept, the appearance of the Corona Virus and COVID-19 has quickly accelerated both its necessity and popularity. With societal changes occurring all across the globe, it became apparent that the medical field needed to devise a new way of delivering care in order to promote social distancing, quarantining when required, and the preservation of limited hospital resources. State-wide lockdowns were implemented to decrease the spread of the novel Corona Virus and Telehealth was and continues to be a way to make healthcare more accessible to people all around the country, especially in rural regions of America. Telehealth makes it possible for high-risk patients to remain safely in their homes while still receiving routine care from their providers. It allows Corona Virus positive providers with mild symptoms to be able to continue to see patients from home while they convalesce. [17] The benefits of Telehealth during a pandemic appear to outweigh the risks: it will decrease overhead costs, is convenient, promotes infection control, connects medical personal from different regions, and allows for rapid triage. [17] Risk factors include increasing health care disparity due to lack of internet or devices, technical difficulties, and a lack of hands on care. [17] However, research indicates that telehealth will continue to play a vital role in diagnosis and treatment until proper effective treatment and/or a vaccine is available to the public. Hospital systems must access their readiness for telehealth and implement it in a timely fashion. [16]

Since the rise of the coronavirus pandemic in the United States, telemedicine has risen exponentially, with estimates that telemedicine market size will be around $175 billion up from $45 billion in 2019. [18] Reasons for the increase in telemedicine are numerous, however, reasons include reducing the exposure of staff to ill individuals and reducing overcrowding the healthcare facilities. [19] Thus, telehealth has significantly grown during the pandemic as it increases social distancing by reducing the need for patient travel and going to crowded places. Another benefit of telehealth is it reduces the amount of PPE that is needed for healthcare professionals that are already in limited supply. [20] Ultimately, telehealth has many benefits beyond the pandemic, such as increasing the number of people who seek preventative care since they can do so from home.

Legal, ethical and regulatory issues

Telenursing is fraught with legal, ethical and regulatory issues, as it happens with telehealth as a whole. In many countries, interstate and intercountry practice of telenursing is forbidden (the attending nurse must have a license both in their state/country of residence and in the state/country where the patient receiving telecare is located). [21] The Nurse Licensure Compact helps resolve some of these jurisdiction issues. Legal issues such as accountability and malpractice, etc. are also still largely unsolved and difficult to address. Ethical issues include maintaining autonomy, maintaining a patient's integrity as well as preventing harm to a patient. [22]

Telenursing professionals use an electronic medical record (EMR) when storing and charting patient data. Digital clinical data transmission increases the risk that outside sources may intercept and exploit sensitive patient information. As a result, telehealth nurses should audit their current security measures and assess how their patient privacy and protection policies protect their patients. Most telehealth nurses work for a hospital or organization that provides them with a laptop and a very high level of security and encryption so that hackers and outside sources may not intercept patients' sensitive and personal information. Telehealth nursing aims to improve access to care, but practitioners and patients alike have concerns about security breaches, according to a report published by the National Center for Biotechnology (NCBI) stating that security is critical for long-term telemedicine success. [23]

Currently, the Health Insurance Portability and Accounting Act (HIPAA) outlines rule sand regulations on how healthcare providers store and share patients' personal data. HIPAA requires that patients identifiable information be encrypted so that only the healthcare professionals involved in their care can access it. However, HIPAA only applies to certain "entities" that included healthcare providers and insurers but not the patients.[ citation needed ]

In addition, there are many considerations related to the patient confidentiality and the safety of clinical data.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ambulatory care</span> Medical care provided for outpatients

Ambulatory care or outpatient care is medical care provided on an outpatient basis, including diagnosis, observation, consultation, treatment, intervention, and rehabilitation services. This care can include advanced medical technology and procedures even when provided outside of hospitals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telehealth</span> Health care by telecommunication

Telehealth is the distribution of health-related services and information via electronic information and telecommunication technologies. It allows long-distance patient and clinician contact, care, advice, reminders, education, intervention, monitoring, and remote admissions. Telemedicine is sometimes used as a synonym, or is used in a more limited sense to describe remote clinical services, such as diagnosis and monitoring. When rural settings, lack of transport, a lack of mobility, conditions due to outbreaks, epidemics or pandemics, decreased funding, or a lack of staff restrict access to care, telehealth may bridge the gap as well as provide distance-learning; meetings, supervision, and presentations between practitioners; online information and health data management and healthcare system integration. Telehealth could include two clinicians discussing a case over video conference; a robotic surgery occurring through remote access; physical therapy done via digital monitoring instruments, live feed and application combinations; tests being forwarded between facilities for interpretation by a higher specialist; home monitoring through continuous sending of patient health data; client to practitioner online conference; or even videophone interpretation during a consult.

eHealth describes healthcare services which are supported by digital processes, communication or technology such as electronic prescribing, Telehealth, or Electronic Health Records (EHRs). The use of electronic processes in healthcare dated back to at least the 1990s. Usage of the term varies as it covers not just "Internet medicine" as it was conceived during that time, but also "virtually everything related to computers and medicine". A study in 2005 found 51 unique definitions. Some argue that it is interchangeable with health informatics with a broad definition covering electronic/digital processes in health while others use it in the narrower sense of healthcare practice using the Internet. It can also include health applications and links on mobile phones, referred to as mHealth or m-Health. Key components of eHealth include electronic health records (EHRs), telemedicine, health information exchange, mobile health applications, wearable devices, and online health information. These technologies enable healthcare providers, patients, and other stakeholders to access, manage, and exchange health information more effectively, leading to improved communication, decision-making, and overall healthcare outcomes.

Telecare is technology-based healthcare such as the monitoring of patient vital organs so that they may remain safe and independent in their own homes. Devices may include health and fitness apps, such as exercise tracking tools and digital medication reminder apps, or technologies that issue early warning and detection. The use of sensors may be part of a package which can provide support for people with illnesses such as dementia, or people at risk of falling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telerehabilitation</span> Delivery of rehabilitation services over the internet

Telerehabilitation (or e-rehabilitation is the delivery of rehabilitation services over telecommunication networks and the internet. Telerehabilitation allows patients to interact with providers remotely and can be used both to assess patients and to deliver therapy. Fields of medicine that utilize telerehabilitation include: physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech-language pathology, audiology, and psychology. Therapy sessions can be individual or community-based. Types of therapy available include motor training exercises, speech therapy, virtual reality, robotic therapy, goal setting, and group exercise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telepsychiatry</span> Mental-health care by telecommunication

Telepsychiatry or telemental health refers to the use of telecommunications technology to deliver psychiatric care remotely for people with mental health conditions. It is a branch of telemedicine.

Home automation for the elderly and disabled focuses on making it possible for older adults and people with disabilities to remain at home, safe and comfortable. Home automation is becoming a viable option for older adults and people with disabilities who would prefer to stay in the comfort of their homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards old people and people with disabilities.

Connected health is a socio-technical model for healthcare management and delivery by using technology to provide healthcare services remotely. Connected health, also known as technology enabled care (TEC) aims to maximize healthcare resources and provide increased, flexible opportunities for consumers to engage with clinicians and better self-manage their care. It uses readily available consumer technologies to deliver patient care outside of the hospital or doctor's office. Connected health encompasses programs in telehealth, remote care and disease and lifestyle management, often leverages existing technologies such as connected devices using cellular networks and is associated with efforts to improve chronic care. However, there is an increasing blur between software capabilities and healthcare needs whereby technologists are now providing the solutions to support consumer wellness and provide the connectivity between patient data, information and decisions. This calls for new techniques to guide Connected Health solutions such as "design thinking" to support software developers in clearly identifying healthcare requirements, and extend and enrich traditional software requirements gathering techniques.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doctor's visit</span>

A doctor's visit, also known as a physician office visit or a consultation, or a ward round in an inpatient care context, is a meeting between a patient with a physician to get health advice or treatment plan for a symptom or condition, most often at a professional health facility such as a doctor's office, clinic or hospital. According to a survey in the United States, a physician typically sees between 50 and 100 patients per week, but it may vary with medical specialty, but differs only little by community size such as metropolitan versus rural areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Remote patient monitoring</span> Technology to monitor patients outside of conventional clinical settings

Remote patient monitoring (RPM) is a technology to enable monitoring of patients outside of conventional clinical settings, such as in the home or in a remote area, which may increase access to care and decrease healthcare delivery costs. RPM involves the constant remote care of patients by their physicians, often to track physical symptoms, chronic conditions, or post-hospitalization rehab.

Telehomecare (THC) is a subfield within telehealth. It involves the delivery of healthcare services to patients at home through the use of telecommunications technologies, which enable the interaction of voice, video, and health-related data. The management of care is done from an external site by a healthcare professional.

Healthcare CRM, also known as Healthcare Relationship Management, is a broadly used term for a Customer relationship management system, or CRM, used in healthcare.

Healthdirect Australia, otherwise known as just Healthdirect and formerly the National Health Call Centre Network, is the national health advice service in Australia. Funded by the Australian Government and all state and territory governments, Healthdirect provides a number of 24/7 health helplines to all Australians.

Mental health informatics is a branch of health or clinical informatics focused on the use of information technology (IT) and information to improve mental health. Like health informatics, mental health informatics is a multidisciplinary field that promotes care delivery, research and education as well as the technology and methodologies required to implement it.

e-consult is a mechanism developed by the Department of Veterans Affairs that enables primary care providers to obtain specialists' inputs into a patient's care treatment without requiring the patient to go to a face-to-face visit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter Yellowlees</span> British-born American physician

Peter Yellowlees is a British-born American physician, researcher, entrepreneur, academic and administrator. He is Distinguished Emeritus Professor of General Psychiatry at University of California, Davis and is the Chief Executive Officer and Founder of Asynchealth Inc. He was the inaugural Chief Wellness Officer at UC Davis and held the Alan Stoudemire Endowed Chair in Psychiatry as the Director of Physician Health Program at UC Davis Psychiatry. He chaired the UCDH Wellbeing Committee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers</span>

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted healthcare workers physically and psychologically. Healthcare workers are more vulnerable to COVID-19 infection than the general population due to frequent contact with infected individuals. Healthcare workers have been required to work under stressful conditions without proper protective equipment, and make difficult decisions involving ethical implications. Health and social systems across the globe are struggling to cope. The situation is especially challenging in humanitarian, fragile and low-income country contexts, where health and social systems are already weak. Services to provide sexual and reproductive health care risk being sidelined, which will lead to higher maternal mortality and morbidity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors</span>

Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors is a growing class of online treatments that allow for an individual who has experienced trauma to seek and receive treatment without needing to attend psychotherapy in person. The progressive movement to online resources and the need for more accessible mental health services has given rise to the creation of online-based interventions aimed to help those who have experienced traumatic events. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown to be particularly effective in the treatment of trauma-related disorders and adapting CBT to an online format has been shown to be as effective as in-person CBT in the treatment of trauma. Due to its positive outcomes, CBT-based internet treatment options for trauma survivors has been an expanding field in both research and clinical settings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the telehealth industry</span> Impact of coronavirus on telehealth

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, telehealth adoption was gradually increasing. With the outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020, healthcare professionals reduced in-person visits to minimize exposure. As a result, telehealth usage surged dramatically, experiencing a 5,000% increase from February to March 2020. Telehealth has since remained widely utilized in healthcare services.

References

  1. ↑ Edmunds, Marilyn W. (5 April 2010). "Telehealth, Telenursing, and Advanced Practice Nurses". MedScape. Archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
  2. ↑ Nurses Happier Using Telecare, Says International Survey Archived 18 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine , eHealth Insider website, 15 June 2005, retrieved 4 April 2009;
  3. ↑ Graves, J. R.; Corcoran, S. (1989). "The study of nursing informatics". Image: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 21 (4): 227–231. doi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.1989.tb00148.x. ISSN   0743-5150. PMID   2807330.
  4. ↑ Kumar, Sajeesh; Snooks, Helen (9 July 2011). Telenursing. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   9780857295293.
  5. ↑ Jácome, Marta; Rego, Nazaré; Veiga, Paula (2019). "Potential of a nurse telephone triage line to direct elderly to appropriate health care settings". Journal of Nursing Management. 27 (6): 1275–1284. doi:10.1111/jonm.12809. hdl: 1822/75662 . PMID   31145491. S2CID   169039610.
  6. 1 2 Howell, Tim (2016). "ED Utilization by Uninsured and Medicaid Patients after Availability of Telephone Triage". Journal of Emergency Nursing. 42 (2): 120–124. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2015.08.015. PMID   26409919.
  7. ↑ Grady, Janet L.; Schlachta-Fairchild, Loretta (2007). "Report of the 2004-2005 International Telenursing Survey". Computers, Informatics, Nursing. 25 (5): 266–272. doi:10.1097/01.ncn.0000289163.16122.c2. PMID   17827989. S2CID   415717.
  8. ↑ Karabatsos, Georgia; Wilson, Andrew (June 2008). "Universal telenursing triage in Australia and New Zealand: A new primary health service" (PDF). Australian Family Physician. 37 (6): 476–9. PMID   18523705.
  9. ↑ Salmoiraghi, Alberto; Hussain, Shahid (September 2015). "A Systematic Review of the Use of Telepsychiatry in Acute Settings". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 21 (5): 389–393. doi:10.1097/PRA.0000000000000103. ISSN   1538-1145. PMID   26348806. S2CID   205955427.
  10. ↑ Bashshur, Rashid L.; Howell, Joel D.; Krupinski, Elizabeth A.; Harms, Kathryn M.; Bashshur, Noura; Doarn, Charles R. (1 May 2016). "The Empirical Foundations of Telemedicine Interventions in Primary Care". Telemedicine and e-Health. 22 (5): 342–375. doi:10.1089/tmj.2016.0045. ISSN   1530-5627. PMC   4860623 . PMID   27128779.
  11. ↑ Snoswell, Centaine L; Chelberg, Georgina; De Guzman, Keshia R; Haydon, Helen H; Thomas, Emma E; Caffery, Liam J; Smith, Anthony C (29 June 2021). "The clinical effectiveness of telehealth: A systematic review of meta-analyses from 2010 to 2019". Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. 29 (9): 669–684. doi:10.1177/1357633X211022907. ISSN   1357-633X. PMID   34184580. S2CID   235674337.
  12. ↑ Schlief, Merle; Saunders, Katherine R K; Appleton, Rebecca; Barnett, Phoebe; Vera San Juan, Norha; Foye, Una; Olive, Rachel Rowan; Machin, Karen; Shah, Prisha; Chipp, Beverley; Lyons, Natasha; Tamworth, Camilla; Persaud, Karen; Badhan, Monika; Black, Carrie-Ann (29 September 2022). "Synthesis of the Evidence on What Works for Whom in Telemental Health: Rapid Realist Review". Interactive Journal of Medical Research. 11 (2): e38239. doi: 10.2196/38239 . ISSN   1929-073X. PMC   9524537 . PMID   35767691.
  13. ↑ O’Keefe, Molly; White, Kelsey; Jennings, J’Aime C (29 July 2019). "Asynchronous telepsychiatry: A systematic review". Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. 27 (3): 137–145. doi: 10.1177/1357633X19867189 . ISSN   1357-633X. PMID   31357908. S2CID   198984831.
  14. ↑ Hilty, Donald M.; Sunderji, Nadiya; Suo, Shannon; Chan, Steven; McCarron, Robert M. (2 November 2018). "Telepsychiatry and other technologies for integrated care: evidence base, best practice models and competencies". International Review of Psychiatry. 30 (6): 292–309. doi:10.1080/09540261.2019.1571483. ISSN   0954-0261. PMID   30821540. S2CID   73482423.
  15. ↑ Nesmith, Ande (2 January 2019). "Reaching Young People Through Texting-Based Crisis Counseling: Process, Benefits, and Challenges". Advances in Social Work. 18 (4): 1147–1164. doi: 10.18060/21590 . ISSN   2331-4125. S2CID   149557926.
  16. 1 2 Puro, Neeraj A.; Feyereisen, Scott (2020). "Telehealth Availability in US Hospitals in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic". The Journal of Rural Health. 36 (4): 577–583. doi:10.1111/jrh.12482. PMC   7362065 . PMID   32603017.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Wijesooriya, N. Romesh; Mishra, Vimal; Brand, Paul L.P.; Rubin, Bruce K. (2020). "COVID-19 and telehealth, education, and research adaptations". Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 35: 38–42. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2020.06.009. PMC   7301824 . PMID   32653468.
  18. ↑ Zhang, Natalie (18 May 2020). "How coronavirus accelerated the rise of telemedicine". CNBC. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  19. ↑ CDC (11 February 2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  20. ↑ "Telehealth's Role in Reducing PPE Usage". RelyMD. 13 April 2020. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  21. ↑ Hutcherson, Carolyn M (30 September 2001). "Legal Considerations for Nurses Practicing in a Telehealth Setting". Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. 6 (3): 4. PMID   11936943 . Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  22. ↑ Hoglund, A; Holstrom, I. "Ethical Issues In Telenursing". International Hospital. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
  23. ↑ Dart, Evan H.; Whipple, Heather M.; Pasqua, Jamie L.; Furlow, Christopher M. (2016). "Legal, Regulatory, and Ethical Issues in Telehealth Technology". Computer-Assisted and Web-Based Innovations in Psychology, Special Education, and Health. pp. 339–363. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-802075-3.00013-9. ISBN   9780128020753.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.