Saint Marianne Cope was among many Catholic nuns to influence the development of modern hospitals and nursing.
Origins
Before the 1870s "women working in North American urban hospitals typically were untrained, working class, and accorded lowly status by both the medical profession ...and society at large". Nursing had the much the same lowly status in Europe.[1] However D'Antonio shows that in the mid-19th century nursing was transformed from a domestic duty of caring for members of one's extended family, to a regular job performed for a cash wage. Nurses were now hired by strangers to care for sick family members at home. These changes were made possible by the realization that expertise mattered more than kinship, as physicians recommended nurses they trusted. By the 1880s home care nursing was the usual career path after graduation from the hospital-based nursing school.[2]
Civil War
During the American Civil War (1861–65), the United States Sanitary Commission, a federal civilian agency, handled most of the medical and nursing care of the Union armies, together with necessary acquisition and transportation of medical supplies. Dorothea Dix, serving as the Commission's Superintendent, convinced the medical corps of the value of women working in 350 Commission or Army hospitals.[3] In both the North and South, over 20,000 women volunteered to work in hospitals, usually in nursing care.[4] They assisted surgeons during procedures, administered medicines, supervised the feedings of patients, and cleaned bedding and clothes. They gave good cheer, wrote letters the patients dictated, and comforted the dying.[5] A representative nurse was Helen L. Gilson (1835–68) of Chelsea, Massachusetts, who served in Sanitary Commission. She supervised supplies, dressed wounds, and cooked special foods for patients on a limited diet. She worked in hospitals after the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg. She was a successful administrator, especially at the hospital for black soldiers at City Point, Virginia.[6] The middle-class women North and South who volunteered provided vitally needed nursing services and were rewarded with a sense of patriotism and civic duty in addition to opportunity to demonstrate their skills and gain new ones, while receiving wages and sharing the hardships of the men.[7]
Several thousand women were just as active in nursing in the Confederacy, but were less well organized and faced severe shortages of supplies and a much weaker system of 150 hospitals. Nursing and vital support services were provided not only by matrons and nurses, but also by local volunteers, slaves, free blacks, and prisoners of war.[11][12][13]
Professionalization
Nursing professionalized rapidly in the late 19th century following the British model as larger hospitals set up nursing schools that attracted ambitious women from middle- and working-class backgrounds. Agnes Elizabeth Jones and Linda Richards established quality nursing schools in the U.S. and Japan. Richards was officially America's first professionally trained nurse, graduating in 1873 from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston. Hospital nursing schools in the United States and Canada took the lead in applying Nightingale's model to their training programs. For example, Isabel Hampton Robb (1860–1910), as director of the new Johns Hopkins Hospital Training School for Nurses, deliberately set out to use advanced training to upgrade the social status of nursing to a middle class career, instead of a low pay, low status, long hours, and heavy work job for working-class women.[14][15]
After 1880, standards of classroom and on-the-job training rose, as did standards of professional conduct.[1] For textbooks, many schools used: A Manual of Training (1878); A Hand-Book of Nursing for Family and General Use (1878); A Text-Book of Nursing for the Use of Training Schools, Families, and Private Students (1885); and Nursing: Its Principles and Practice for Hospital and Private Use (1893). These books defined the curriculum of the new nursing schools and introduced nurses to modern medical science and scientific thinking.[16]
In the early 1900s, the autonomous, nursing-controlled, Nightingale-era schools came to an end. Schools became controlled by hospitals, and formal "book learning" was discouraged in favor of clinical experience. Hospitals used student nurses as cheap labor. In the late 1920s, the women's specialties in health care included 294,000 trained nurses, 150,000 untrained nurses, 47,000 midwives, and 550,000 other hospital workers (most of them women).[17]
Sandelowski finds that by 1900 physicians were allowing nurses to routinely use the thermometer and stethoscope, and in some cases even the new X-ray machines, microscopes and laboratory testing tools. For the first time, nurses could supplement their subjective observations with scientific tools. Most nurses remained at the bedside, where they used the new technology to gather information for doctors, but were not allowed to make a medical diagnosis. Their bond with the patient remained their primary role.[18]
The John Sealy Hospital Training School for Nurses opened in 1890 in Galveston, Texas. It grew rapidly and in 1896 became the School of Nursing, University of Texas; it was the first nursing school to become part of a university in the state of Texas.[19] In recent decades, professionalization has moved nursing degrees out of RN-oriented hospital schools and into community colleges and universities. Specialization has brought numerous journals to broaden the knowledge base of the profession. Very few blacks attended universities with nursing schools. The solution was found by the Rockefeller's General Education Board, which funded new nursing schools headed by Rita E. Miller at Dillard University in New Orleans (1942) and by Mary Elizabeth Lancaster Carnegie at Florida A. & M. College in Tallahassee (1945).[20]
The number of hospitals grew from 149 in 1873 to 4,400 in 1910 (with 420,000 beds)[21] to 6,300 in 1933, primarily because the public had more trust in hospitals and could afford to pay for more intensive and professional care.[22] Most larger hospitals operated a school of nursing, which provided training to young women, who in turn worked without pay. The number of active graduate nurses rose rapidly from 51,000 in 1910 to 375,000 in 1940 and 700,000 in 1970.[23]
They were operated by city, state and federal agencies, by churches, by stand-alone non-profits, and by for-profit enterprises run by a local doctor.
The Lutheran and Episcopal churches entered the health field, especially by setting up orders of women, called deaconesses who dedicated themselves to nursing services. The modern deaconess movement began in Germany in 1836. William Passavant in 1849 brought the first four deaconesses to Pittsburgh, in the United States, after visiting Kaiserswerth. They worked at the Pittsburgh Infirmary (now Passavant Hospital).[26]
American Methodists—the largest Protestant denomination in the country—engaged in large-scale missionary activity in Asia and elsewhere in the world, making medical services a priority as early as the 1850s. Methodists in America took note, and began opening their own charitable institutions such as orphanages and homes for the elderly after 1860. In the 1880s, Methodists began opening hospitals in the United States, which served people of all religious backgrounds. By 1895, 13 Methodist hospitals were in operation in major cities.[27]
In 1884, U.S. Lutherans, particularly John D. Lankenau, brought seven sisters from Germany to run the German Hospital in Philadelphia.
Public health nursing after 1900 offered a new career for professional nurses in addition to private duty work. The role of public health nurse began in Los Angeles in 1898, and by 1924, there were 12,000 public health nurses, half of them in America's 100 largest cities. Their average annual salary of public health nurses in larger cities was $1390. In addition, there were thousands of nurses employed by private agencies handling similar work. Public health nurses supervised health issues in the public and parochial schools, to prenatal and infant care, handled communicable diseases such as tuberculosis, and dealt with an aerial diseases.[29][30]
February 1918 drawing by Marguerite Martyn of a visiting nurse in St. Louis, Missouri, with medicine and babies
Historian Nancy Bristow has argued that the great 1918 flu pandemic contributed to the success of women in the field of nursing. This was due in part to the failure of medical doctors, who were predominantly men, to contain and prevent the illness. Nursing staff, who were predominantly women, felt more inclined to celebrate the success of their patient care and less inclined to identify the spread of the disease with their own work.[31]
During the Great Depression, federal relief agencies funded many large-scale public health programs in every state, some of which became permanent. The programs expanding job opportunities for nurses, especially the private duty RNs who suffered high unemployment rates.[32][33]
Public health nursing made available through child welfare services in U.S. (c. 1930s)
In the United States, a representative public health worker was Dr. Sara Josephine Baker who established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy, leading teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of Hell's Kitchen and teaching mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies.
The federal Office of Indian Affairs (OIA) operated a large-scale field nursing program. Field nurses targeted native women for health education, emphasizing personal hygiene, and infant care and nutrition.[34]
During the Spanish–American War of 1898, medical conditions in the tropical war zone were dangerous, with yellow fever and malaria endemic and deadly.[35] The United States government called for women to volunteer as nurses. The Daughters of the American Revolution and other organizations helped thousands of women to sign up as nurses, but few were professionally trained. Among the latter were 250 Catholic nurses, most of them from the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul.[36] The Army hired female civilian nurses to help with the wounded. Dr. Anita Newcomb McGee was put in charge of selecting contract nurses to work as civilians with the U.S. Army. In all, more than 1,500 women nurses worked as contract nurses during the Spanish—American War.
1917 Army Nurse Corps Uniform Coat
Professionalization was a dominant theme during the Progressive Era, because it valued expertise and hierarchy over ad hoc volunteering in the name of civic duty. Congress consequently established the Army Nurse Corps in 1901 and the Navy Nurse Corps in 1908. The Red Cross became a quasi-official federal agency in 1905 and its American Red Cross Nursing Service took upon itself primary responsibility for recruiting and assigning nurses.
During World War I, from 1917 to 1918, the military recruited 20,000 registered nurses (all women) for military and navy duty in 58 military hospitals; they helped staff 47 ambulance companies that operated on the Western Front. More than 10,000 served overseas, while 5,400 nurses enrolled in the Army's new School of Nursing. Key decisions were made by Jane Delano, director of the Red Cross Nursing Service, Mary Adelaide Nutting, president of the American Federation of Nurses, and Annie Warburton Goodrich, dean of the Army School of Nursing. Delano proposed training aides to cover the shortage of nurses, but Nutting and Goodrich were strongly opposed, arguing that aides devalued nursing as a profession and would undermine their goal of advancing nursing education at the college level. The compromise was to establish the Army School of Nursing, which operated from 1919 to 1939.[37][38]
The nurses—all of whom were women—were kept far from the front lines, and although none were killed by enemy action, more than 200 died from disease, especially the Spanish flu epidemic. Demobilization reduced the Army and Navy corps to skeleton units designed to be expanded should a new war take place. Eligibility at this time included being female, white, unmarried, volunteer, and a graduate from a civilian nursing school. In 1920, Army Nurse Corps personnel received officer-equivalent ranks and wore Army rank insignia on their uniforms. However, they did not receive equivalent pay and were not considered part of the US Army.
In 1901 the American Society of Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses and the Nurses' Associated Alumnae of the United States and Canada merged to form the American Federation of Nurses. It joined the National Council of Women and the International Council of Nurses. The federation was replaced in 1911 by the new American Nurses' Association.[39]
As Campbell (1984) shows, the nursing profession was transformed by World War II. Army and Navy nursing was highly attractive and 30% volunteered for duty—a larger proportion than any other occupation in American society. The 59,000 women of the Army Nurse Corps and the 18,000 of the Navy Nurse Corps at first were selected by the civilian men of the Red Cross. No men were allowed in. But as the nurses rose in rank they took more control and by 1944 were autonomous of the Red Cross. As veterans, they took increasing control of the profession through the ANA.[40] As the Air Force became virtually independent of the Army, so too did the United States Air Force Nurse Corps.[41]
Recruiting poster for the Cadet Nurse Corps 1943-48
The services built a very large network of hospitals, and used hundreds of thousands of enlisted men (tens of thousands of enlisted women) as nurses' aides. Congress set up a major new program, the Cadet Nurse Corps, that funded nursing schools to train 124,000 young civilian women (including 3,000 blacks). The plan was to encourage graduates to join the nurse corps of the Army or Navy, but that was dropped when the war ended in 1945 before the first cadets graduated.[42][43][44]
The public image of the nurses was highly favorable during the war, as the simplified by such Hollywood films as Cry 'Havoc' (1943) which portrayed nurses as selfless heroes under enemy fire. Some nurses were captured by the Japanese,[45] but in practice they were largely kept out of harm's way, with the great majority stationed on the home front. However, 77 were stationed in the jungles of the Pacific, where their uniform consisted of "khaki slacks, mud, shirts, mud, field shoes, mud, and fatigues."[46][47] The medical services were large operations, with over 600,000 soldiers, and ten enlisted men for every nurse. Nearly all the doctors were men, with women doctors allowed only to examine the WAC.[48]
President Franklin D. Roosevelt hailed the service of nurses in the war effort in his final "Fireside Chat" of January 6, 1945. Expecting heavy casualties in the invasion of Japan, he called for a compulsory draft of nurses. The casualties never happened and there was never a draft of American nurses.[49][50]
Postwar transformation
Tensions of long standing had pulled nursing in two directions, as Campbell explains:
Nursing enjoyed a great humanitarian tradition and clearly attracted so many women because of its goal of helping sick people. On the other hand, the remarkable advances in medical science and technology and in the organizing, financing, and delivery of patient care had wrought radical transformations since the days of Nightingale and Barton. Nursing was poised to become a technological field that required extensive training, far more than was usually available. Should nurses be technicians or humanitarians?[51]
Before the war the nurses were too weak to resolve the tension. Nurses in hospital service and public health were controlled by physicians; those in private practice operated as individuals and had no collective power. The war changed everything; nurses ran the nurse corps and as officers they had senior administrative roles over major operations. They commanded hundreds of thousands of men (as well as Wacs and WAVES) who worked in the wards. They learned how power works. After the war they took control of the ANA; they dispensed with control by the Red Cross. The women who had served in field and evacuation hospitals Europe and the South Pacific ignored the older traditionalists who resented the superior skills and command presence of the new generation. They had "become accustomed to taking the initiative, making quick decisions, and adopting innovative solutions to a broad range of medical-related problems."[52] They used the prestige of their profession to chart their own course.[53]
The American Nurses Association became the premier organization. It integrated racially, absorbing the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses in 1951.[54]Male nurses, however, remained outsiders and were kept out of nursing schools.[55] The Red Cross lost its central role in supplying military nurses. The National Nursing Council was disbanded, as was the Procurement and Assignment Service of the War Manpower Convention. The Cadet Nurse Corps closed in 1948. The ANA campaigned for better pay and working conditions, for in 1946, the average RN earned about one dollar an hour—or $175 a month, ranging from $153 for private duty nurses to $207 for nurse educators. The hospital system fought back, and secured an exemption from the National Labor Relations Act that made unionization very difficult. They National Organization of Hospital Schools of Nursing launched a last-ditch fight to stop the movement of all nursing education into universities.[56]
Private duty nursing rapidly declined after the Great Depression of 1929-39 lowered family incomes. Hospitals increasingly handled the round-the-clock care of sick people for they had the staff, the expertise and the equipment to treat them. Furthermore, hospitals were more efficient and cheaper than private duty nurses who cared for one patient at a time. Nursing students spent their time mostly studying. To replace their work, hospitals hired graduate nurses who had finished their training and wanted permanent careers, as well as lower-paid aides, attendants and practical nurses who handled many chores.[57] In 1946, the nation's hospitals employed 178,000 nursing auxiliaries; six years later they employed 297,000. The new staff allowed the proportion of hospital patient care provided by RNs to fall from 75% to 30%.[58]
The Nurse Training Act of 1964 transformed the education of nursing, moving the locale from hospitals to universities and community colleges.[59] There was a sharp increase in the number of nurses; not only did the supply increase, but more women remained in the profession after marrying. Salaries increased, as did specialization and the growth of administrative roles for nurses in both the academic and hospital environments.[60] Private duty nursing, once the mainstay for older RNs, became less prevalent. D'Antonio traces the history over six decades of a cohort of nurses who graduated in 1919, going back and forth between paid employment and housework.[61]
From 1965 through 1988, a surge of 70,000 trained nurses immigrated to the U.S. for jobs that paid much better than those in their home countries. Most were from Asia. The Philippines had strong connections with American nursing since 1898 and after World War II adopted a national policy to train and export highly skilled nurses across the globe to bolster the Philippine economy. The number of Philippine nursing schools soared from 17 in 1950 to 140 in 1970, together with a stress on building English language proficiency. The new arrivals organized and formed local groups that merged into the National Federation of Philippines Nurses Associations in the United States.[62]
As of 2013, the nursing profession remained overwhelmingly female, but the representation of men has increased as the demand for nurses has grown over the last several decades, according to a U.S. Census Bureau study. The proportion of male licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses has more than doubled from 3.9 percent to 8.1 percent.[63] According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 12% of registered nurses in 2019 were men, up from 2.7% male registered nurses in 1970.[64]
As outlined in recommendations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, nurses have a high rate of workplace injury, mainly when lifting patients. The agency recommends eliminating manual lifting in favor of mechanized devices,[65] and in 2015, began an enforcement campaign to force hospitals to do so.[66]
Jane Arminda Delano was a nurse and founder of the American Red Cross Nursing Service.
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USU) is a health science university and professional school of the U.S. federal government. The primary mission of the school is to prepare graduates for service to the U.S. at home and abroad as uniformed health professionals, scientists and leaders; by conducting cutting-edge, military-relevant research; by leading the Military Health System in key functional and intellectual areas; and by providing operational support to units around the world.
The United States Navy Nurse Corps was officially established by Congress in 1908; however, unofficially, women had been working as nurses aboard Navy ships and in Navy hospitals for nearly 100 years. The Corps was all-female until 1965.
Matilda Evans, M.D., also known as Matilda Arabella Evans was the first African-American woman licensed to practice medicine in South Carolina and an advocate for improved health care for African Americans, particularly children.
A hospital corpsman is an enlisted medical specialist of the United States Navy, who may also serve in a U.S. Marine Corps unit. The corresponding rating within the United States Coast Guard is health services technician (HS).
Most professional militaries employ specialised military nurses or nursing sisters. They are often organised as a distinct nursing corps. Florence Nightingale formed the first nucleus of a recognised Nursing Service for the British Army during the Crimean War in 1854. In the same theatre of the same war, Professor Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov and the Grand Duchess Yelena Pavlovna originated Russian traditions of recruiting and training military nurses – associated especially with besieged Sevastopol (1854–1855). Following the war Nightingale fought to institute the employment of women nurses in British military hospitals, and by 1860 she had succeeded in establishing an Army Training School for military nurses at the Royal Victoria Military Hospital in Netley, Hampshire, England.
United States (U.S.) Cadet Nurse Corps (CNC) was authorized by the U.S. Congress on 15 June 1943 and signed into law by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on 1 July. The purpose of the law was to alleviate the nursing shortage that existed before and during World War II. The legislative act contained a specific provision that prohibited discrimination based upon race, color, or creed. The United States Public Health Service (USPHS) was named the supervisory agency; it was answerable to Thomas Parran, Jr. the surgeon general of the United States. The USPHS established a separate division to administer the CNC program and Parran appointed Lucile Petry a registered nurse (RN) as its director.
Nurses in the United States practice nursing in a wide variety of specialties and departments.
Mabel Keaton Staupers was a pioneer in the American nursing profession. Faced with racial discrimination after graduating from nursing school, Staupers became an advocate for racial equality in the nursing profession.
Julia Catherine Stimson was an American nurse, credited as one of several persons who brought nursing to the status of a profession.
The term military medicine has a number of potential connotations. It may mean:
The word "nurse" originally came from the Latin word "nutrire", meaning to suckle, referring to a wet-nurse; only in the late 16th century did it attain its modern meaning of a person who cares for the infirm.
Nursing is a profession within the healthcare sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses can be differentiated from other healthcare providers by their approach to patient care, training, and scope of practice. Nurses practice in many specialties with differing levels of prescription authority. Nurses comprise the largest component of most healthcare environments; but there is evidence of international shortages of qualified nurses. Nurses collaborate with other healthcare providers such as physicians, nurse practitioners, physical therapists, and psychologists. There is a distinction between nurses and nurse practitioners; in the U.S., the latter are nurses with a graduate degree in advanced practice nursing, and are permitted to prescribe medications unlike the former. They practice independently in a variety of settings in more than half of the United States. Since the postwar period, nurse education has undergone a process of diversification towards advanced and specialized credentials, and many of the traditional regulations and provider roles are changing.
The state of medical knowledge at the time of the Civil War was extremely primitive. Doctors did not understand infection, and did little to prevent it. It was a time before antiseptics, and a time when there was no attempt to maintain sterility during surgery. No antibiotics were available, and minor wounds could easily become infected, and hence fatal. While the typical soldier was at risk of being hit by rifle or artillery fire, he faced an even greater risk of dying from disease.
The United States Army Nurse Corps (USANC) was formally established by the U.S. Congress in 1901. It is one of the six medical special branches of officers which – along with medical enlisted soldiers – comprise the Army Medical Department (AMEDD). The ANC is the nursing service for the U.S. Army and provides nursing staff in support of the Department of Defense medical plans. The ANC is composed entirely of Registered Nurses (RNs) but also includes Nurse Practitioners.
The history of medicine in the United States encompasses a variety of approaches to health care in the United States spanning from colonial days to the present. These interpretations of medicine vary from early folk remedies that fell under various different medical systems to the increasingly standardized and professional managed care of modern biomedicine.
The Sacred Twenty were a group of nurses who were the first female members to ever formally serve in the United States Navy representing the Nurse Corps. Officially formed in 1908, the Sacred Twenty made broad contributions during wartime, not only including training of field nurses and disease treatment, but also providing education programs for nurses abroad and professional publications to the field of nursing.
The history of nursing in the United Kingdom relates to the development of the profession since the 1850s. The history of nursing itself dates back to ancient history, when the sick were cared for in temples and places of worship. In the early Christian era, nursing in the United Kingdom was undertaken by certain women in the Christian Church, their services being extended to patients in their homes. These women had no real training by today's standards, but experience taught them valuable skills, especially in the use of herbs and folk drugs, and some gained fame as the physicians of their era. Remnants of the religious nature of nurses remains in Britain today, especially with the retention of the job title "Sister" for a senior female nurse.
↑ Brown, Thomas J. (1998). Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer. Harvard University Press. ISBN9780674214880.
↑ Schultz, Jane E. (Winter 1992). "The inhospitable hospital: gender and professionalism in Civil War medicine". Signs. 17 (2): 363–392. doi:10.1086/494734. JSTOR3174468. S2CID143761860.
↑ Wood, Ann Douglas (1972). "The war within a war: women nurses in the Union Army". Civil War History. 18 (3): 197–212. doi:10.1353/cwh.1972.0046.
↑ Miller, Edward A. (1997). "Angel of Light: Helen L. Gilson, army nurse". Civil War History. 43 (1): 17–37. doi:10.1353/cwh.1997.0010.
↑ Hamand Venet, Wendy (2005). A Strong-Minded Woman: The Life of Mary Livermore. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN9781558495135.
↑ Gardner Holland, Mary, ed. (1895). Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War. Edinborough Press. ISBN978-1889020044.
↑ Burton, David Henry (1995). Clara Barton: In the Service of Humanity. Greenwood Press. ISBN9780313289453.
↑ Hilde, Libra R. (2012). Worth a Dozen Men: Women and Nursing in the Civil War South. University of Virginia Press. ISBN9780813932187.
↑ Quinn, E. Moore (May 2010). "'I have been trying very hard to be powerful "nice" …': the correspondence of Sister M. De Sales (Brennan) during the American Civil War". Irish Studies Review. 18 (2): 213–233. doi:10.1080/09670881003725929. S2CID144279525.
↑ Wilson James, Janet (1979). "Isabel Hampton and the professionalization of nursing in the 1890s". In Vogel, Morris J.; Rosenberg, Charles E. (eds.). Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.201–244. ISBN9780812277739.
↑ Flaumenhaft, Eugene; Flaumenhaft, Carol (January 1987). "Four books that changed nursing". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 42 (1): 54–72. doi:10.1093/jhmas/42.1.54. PMID3549887.
↑ Moore, Harry H. (1933). "Health and Medical Practice". In President's Research Committee on Social Trends (ed.). Recent Social Trends in the United States (Report). p.1064.
↑ Clark Hine, Darlene (Summer 1982). "From hospital to college: black nurse leaders and the rise of collegiate nursing schools". The Journal of Negro Education. 51 (3): 222–237. doi:10.2307/2294691. JSTOR2294691.
↑ U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (1976) p 78
↑ Kalisch, Philip Arthur; Kalisch, Beatrice J. (1978). The Advance of American Nursing. Little, Brown. p.360. ISBN9780316482264.
↑ Historical Statistics of the United States (1976) p 76
↑ McCauley, Bernadette (2005). Who shall take care of our sick?: Roman Catholic sisters and the development of Catholic hospitals in New York City. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN9780801882166.
↑ Crawford Berkeley, Wade (1957). History of Methodist Missions: The Methodist Episcopal Church 1845–1939. pp.82, 192–93, 482.
↑ Naumann, Cheryl D. (2009). In the Footsteps of Phoebe: a complete history of the deaconess movement in the Lutheran Church —Missouri Synod. Concordia Publishing House. ISBN9780758608314.
↑ United States Public Health Service, Municipal Health Department Practice for the Year 1923 (Public Health Bulletin # 164, July 1926), pp. 348, 357, 364
↑ Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand": Work Culture and Conflict in American Nursing (1982) pp 113-57.
↑ Kalisch and Kalisch, Advance of Amerocan Nursing (1986) pp 474-84
↑ Christin L. Hancock, "Healthy Vocations: Field Nursing and the Religious Overtones of Public Health," Journal of Women's History (2001) 23#3 pp 113-137
↑ Mercedes Graf, "All the Women Were Valiant," Prologue (2014) 46#2 pp 24–34
↑ Mercedes Graf, "Band Of Angels: Sister Nurses in the Spanish–American War," Prologue (2002) 34#3 pp 196–209. online
↑ Ruth E. Malone, "Jane A. Delano: Saint or Sellout?" Nursing History Review (1994), Vol. 2, pp 67–97
↑ Jennifer Casavant Telford, "The American Nursing Shortage during World War I: The Debate over the Use of Nurses' Aids," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History (2010) 27#1 pp 85–99.
↑ Sandra Lewenson, "'Of Logical Necessity . . . They Hang Together': Nursing and the Women's Movement, 1901-1912," Nursing History Review (1994) Vol. 2, p 99–117
↑ D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (1984) ch 2
↑ Judith Barger, Beyond the Call of Duty: Army Flight Nursing in World War II (2013) excerpt
↑ Beatrice J. Kalisch and Philip A. Kalisch. "Nurses in American History The Cadet Nurse Corps-in World War II" AJN The American Journal of Nursing (1976) 76#2 pp: 240–242
↑ Bonnie Bullough, "The lasting impact of World War II on nursing." AJN The American Journal of Nursing (1976) 76#1 pp: 118–124.
↑ Heather Willever nd John Parascandola, "The Cadet Nurse Corps, 1943-48." Public Health Reports (1994) 109#3 pp: 455–457. online
↑ Elizabeth Norman, We Band of Angels: The Untold Story of American Nurses Trapped on Bataan by the Japanese (1999)
↑ Mary T. Sarnecky, A history of the U.S. Army Nurse Corps (1999) p. 199 online
↑ Joan E. Lynaugh, "Nursing the Great Society: The Impact of the Nurse Training Act of 1964," Nursing History Review (2008) 16#1 pp 13-28.
↑ Patricia. D'Antonio, "Nurses—and Wives and Mothers: Women and the Latter-day Saints Training School's Class of 1919," Journal of Women's History (2007) 19#3 pp 112-36.
↑ Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino-American History (2003) p 1
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Wall, Barbara Mann. Into Africa: A Transnational History of Catholic Medical Missions and Social Change (Rutgers UP, 2015) online review.
Ward, Frances. On Duty: Power, Politics, and the History of Nursing in New Jersey (2009) Excerpt and text search
West, Edith A., W. P. Griffith, and Ron Iphofen. "A historical perspective on the nursing shortage." Medsurg nursing: official journal of the Academy of Medical-Surgical Nurses · 16.2 (2007): 124-130. online
Military nursing
Bellafaire, Judith. Women in the United States Military: An Annotated Bibliography (Routledge, 2011) online.
Campbell, D'Ann. "Victory for the Angels of Mercy: The Nurses Break Through" in Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (1984) pp. 47-62, on Army and Navy nurses in World War II. online
Coddington, Ronald S. Faces of Civil War Nurses (2020) online book review
Donahue, M. Patricia. Nursing: The finest art, an illustrated history. (2nd ed. Mosby, 1996), pp 339-404. online
Egenes, Karen, and Frances Vlasses. "Clara Barton: Angel of the battlefield." in Nursing’s Greatest Leaders: A History of Activism (Springer, 2016): 71-104.
Grant, Susan-Mary. "On the Field of Mercy: Women Medical Volunteers from the Civil War to the First World War." American Nineteenth Century History (2012) 13#2 pp: 276–278.
McLarnon, Colleen O., and Jamie H. Wise. "Blue water nursing: The role of Navy nurses on board US Navy combatant ships." Critical Care Nursing Clinics 15.2 (2003): 233-243.
Norman, Elizabeth M. Women at war: the story of fifty military nurses who served in Vietnam (U of Pennsylvania Press, 1990) online.
Norman, Elizabeth M. We Band of Angels: The Untold Story of the American Women Trapped on Bataan (Random House, 2011) online.
Schultz, Jane E. "The Inhospitable Hospital: Gender and Professionalism in Civil War Medicine," Signs (1992) 17#2 pp. 363-392 online
Sterner, Doris. In and Out of Harm's Way: A History of the Navy Nurse Corps (1998)
Telford, Jennifer Casavant. "The American Nursing Shortage during World War I: The Debate over the Use of Nurses’ Aids." Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 27.1 (2010): 85-99. online
Tomblin, Barbara Brooks. G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (2004) 272 pages excerpt and text search
Vuic, Kara D. Officer, Nurse, Woman: The Army Nurse Corps in the Vietnam War (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009) online
Wall, Barbara Mann. "Grace under Pressure: The Nursing Sisters of the Holy Cross, 1861-1865." Nursing History Review 1#1 (1993): 71-87.
Primary sources
Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. Black Women in the Nursing Profession: A Documentary History (Taylor & Francis, 1985)
Jones, Anne Hudson, ed. Images of Nurses: Perspectives from History, Art, and Literature (U. of Pennsylvania Press, 1988)
Safier, Gwendolyn, ed. Contemporary American Leaders in Nursing: An Oral History (1977) oral history interviews
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