Jacksonian democracy

Jacksonian Democrats
Historical leaders	Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren James K. Polk Thomas Hart Benton Stephen A. Douglas [1]
Founded	1825;200 years ago (1825) [2]
Dissolved	1854;171 years ago (1854)
Split from	Democratic-Republican Party
Preceded by	Jeffersonian Republicans Old Republicans
Merged into	Democratic Party
Ideology	Agrarianism Anti-corruption [3] Anti-elitism Civic engagement Classical liberalism [4] Jeffersonianism Laissez-faire Majority rule [5] Manifest destiny Populism Spoils system Strict constructionism Universal white male suffrage [6] Utilitarianism [5] Factions Radicalism [7] Conservatism [8]
National affiliation	Democratic Party (after 1828)
Politics of United States Political parties Elections

Jacksonian Era
1829–1854
Andrew Jackson
President(s)	Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler James K. Polk
Key events	Trail of Tears Indian removal Nullification crisis Second Great Awakening Westward expansion Mexican–American War Prelude to the Civil War
Chronology Era of Good Feelings Civil War Era

Jacksonian democracy was a 19th-century political philosophy in the United States that restructured a number of federal institutions. Originating with the seventh U.S. president, Andrew Jackson and his supporters, it became the nation's dominant political worldview for a generation. The term itself was in active use by the 1830s. ^[9]

This era, called the Jacksonian Era or Second Party System by historians and political scientists, lasted roughly from Jackson's 1828 presidential election until the practice of slavery became the dominant issue with the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854 and the political repercussions of the American Civil War dramatically reshaped American politics. It emerged when the long-dominant Democratic-Republican Party became factionalized around the 1824 presidential election. Jackson's supporters began to form the modern Democratic Party. His political rivals John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay created the National Republican Party, which would afterward combine with other anti-Jackson political groups to form the Whig Party.

Broadly speaking, the era was characterized by a democratic spirit. It built upon Jackson's equal political policy, subsequent to ending what he termed a monopoly of government by elites. Even before the Jacksonian era began, suffrage had been extended to a majority of white male adult citizens, a result which the Jacksonians celebrated. ^[10] Jacksonian democracy also promoted the strength of the presidency and the executive branch at the expense of Congress, while also seeking to broaden the public's participation in government. The Jacksonians demanded elected, not appointed, judges and rewrote many state constitutions to reflect the new values. In national terms, they favored geographical expansionism, justifying it in terms of manifest destiny.

Jackson's expansion of democracy was exclusively limited to White men, as well as voting rights in the nation were extended to adult white males only. There was also little to no improvement, and in many cases a reduction of the rights of non-white U.S citizens, during the extensive period of Jacksonian democracy, spanning from 1829 to 1860. ^[11]

Etymology

In its earliest usage, the phrase "Jacksonian democracy" had a narrower meaning referring to the Democratic Party, particularly as led by Andrew Jackson, who was president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. ^[12] American historian James Schouler called Jackson's political alliance "the Jackson Democracy" in his 1889 History of the United States Under the Constitution, and in 1890 future president Theodore Roosevelt called the antebellum Democratic Party "the Jacksonian Democracy". ^[13] Later historians, including Frederick Jackson Turner and William MacDonald, generalized the phrase "Jacksonian democracy" to describe democracy writ large in the United States and what they saw as the influence of the American frontier on the character of American political culture. ^[14] In the 1945 book The Age of Jackson , Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. influentially reinterpreted "Jacksonian Democracy" as a phenomenon of labor struggle against business power rather than of frontier regional influence. ^[15]

Philosophy

General principles

Historian Robert V. Remini, in 1999, stated that Jacksonian Democracy involved the belief that the people are sovereign, that their will is absolute and that the majority rules. ^[16]

William S. Belko, in 2015, summarized "the core concepts underlying Jacksonian Democracy" as:

equal protection of the laws; an aversion to a moneyed aristocracy, exclusive privileges, and monopolies, and a predilection for the common man; majority rule; and the welfare of the community over the individual. ^[5]

Historian and social critic Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. argued in 1945 that Jacksonian democracy was built on the following: ^[17]

Property qualifications for suffrage 1830

• Expanded suffrage – The Jacksonians believed that voting rights should be extended to all white men. By the end of the 1820s, attitudes and state laws had shifted in favor of universal white male suffrage ^[18] and by 1856 all requirements to own property and nearly all requirements to pay taxes had been dropped. ^{[19] [20]}
• Manifest destiny – This was the belief that Americans had a destiny to settle the American West and to expand control from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, and that the West should be settled by yeoman farmers. However, the Free Soil movement, originally a offshoot of Jacksonianism, argued for limitations on slavery in the new areas to enable the poor white man to flourish — they split with the main party briefly in 1848 when nominated former President Martin Van Buren . The Whigs generally opposed Manifest Destiny and expansion, saying the nation should build up its cities. ^[21]
• Patronage – Also known as the spoils system, patronage was the policy of placing political supporters into appointed offices. Many Jacksonians held the view that rotating political appointees in and out of office was not only the right, but also the duty of winners in political contests. Patronage was theorized to be good because it would encourage political participation by the common man and because it would make a politician more accountable for poor government service by his appointees. Jacksonians also held that long tenure in the civil service was corrupting, so civil servants should be rotated out of office at regular intervals. However, patronage often led to the hiring of incompetent and sometimes corrupt officials due to the emphasis on party loyalty above any other qualifications. ^[22]
• Strict constructionism – Like the Jeffersonians who strongly believed in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, Jacksonians initially favored a federal government of limited powers. Jackson said that he would guard against "all encroachments upon the legitimate sphere of State sovereignty". However, he was not a states' rights extremist—indeed, the nullification crisis would find Jackson fighting against what he perceived as state encroachments on the proper sphere of federal influence. This position was one basis for the Jacksonians' opposition to the Second Bank of the United States. As the Jacksonians consolidated power, they more often advocated expanding federal power, presidential power in particular. ^[23]
• Laissez-faire – Complementing a strict construction of the Constitution, the Jacksonians generally favored a hands-off approach to the economy as opposed to the Whig program sponsoring modernization, railroads, banking and economic growth. ^{[24] [25]} The chief spokesman amongst laissez-faire advocates was William Leggett of the Locofocos in New York City. ^{[26] [27]}
• Opposition to banking – In particular, the Jacksonians opposed government-granted monopolies to banks, especially the national bank, a central bank known as the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson said: "The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it!" and he did so. ^[28] The Whigs, who strongly supported the Bank, were led by Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Nicholas Biddle, the bank chairman. ^[29] Jackson himself was opposed to all banks because he believed they were devices to cheat common people—he and many followers believed that only gold and silver should be used to back currency, rather than the integrity of a bank.

Election by the "common man"

George Caleb Bingham's The County Election   [ d ] depicts democracy in action in Missouri c. 1852, showing an "all-male polling place where voting would go on for two or three days to allow farmers to come in to the county seat" to cast their non-secret ballots. According to the Saint Louis Art Museum, Bingham's painting uses figures ranging from a newly naturalized citizen to a grizzled veteran to a couple of local drunks to demonstrate "the democratic ideal must be embraced even though uninformed votes could prevail."

An important movement in the period from 1800 to 1830—the era immediately before the election of Jackson—was the gradual expansion of the right to vote from only property owning men to include all white men over 21. ^[32] Older states with property restrictions dropped them, namely all but Rhode Island, Virginia, and North Carolina by the mid-1820s. No new states had property qualifications although three had adopted tax-paying qualifications—Ohio, Louisiana, and Mississippi, of which only in Louisiana were these significant and long lasting. ^[33] The process was peaceful and widely supported, except in the state of Rhode Island. In Rhode Island, the Dorr Rebellion of the 1840s demonstrated that the demand for equal suffrage was broad and strong, although the subsequent reform included a significant property requirement for any resident born outside of the United States. However, free black men lost voting rights in several states during this period. ^[34]

The fact that any man was now legally allowed to vote did not necessarily mean he routinely voted. He had to be pulled to the polls, which became the most important role of the local parties. They systematically sought out potential voters and brought them to the polls. Voter turnout soared during the 1830s, reaching about 80% of adult white male population in the 1840 presidential election. ^[35] Tax-paying qualifications remained in only five states by 1860—Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware and North Carolina. ^[36]

One innovative strategy for increasing voter participation and input was developed outside the Jacksonian camp. Prior to the presidential election of 1832, the Anti-Masonic Party conducted the nation's first presidential nominating convention. Held in Baltimore, Maryland, September 26–28, 1831, it transformed the process by which political parties select their presidential and vice-presidential candidates. ^[37]

Factions

The period from 1824 to 1832 was politically chaotic. The Federalist Party and the First Party System were dead and with no effective opposition, the old Democratic-Republican Party withered away. Every state had numerous political factions, but they did not cross state lines. Political coalitions formed and dissolved and politicians moved in and out of alliances. ^[38]

More former Democratic-Republicans supported Jackson, while others such as Henry Clay opposed him. More former Federalists, such as Daniel Webster, opposed Jackson, although some like James Buchanan supported him. In 1828, John Quincy Adams pulled together a network of factions called the National Republicans, but he was defeated by Jackson. By the late 1830s, the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs—a fusion of the National Republicans and other anti-Jackson parties—politically battled it out nationally and in every state. ^[39]

Red, white, and black: Race and power in the formation of Jacksonian-era political alliances

According to historian Daniel Walker Howe in What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 the origins of Jacksonianism were allegiance to Jackson the man. ^[40] (As one history put it, "While the Whigs denied it, their party really had its origin in Tennessee in opposition to Jackson.") ^[41] As Thomas P. Abernethy wrote in 1927, "No historian has ever accused Jackson, the great Democrat, of having had a political philosophy. It is hard to see that he even had any political principles. He was a man of action, and the man of action is likely to be an opportunist." ^[42] Thus, Jacksonianism began without any given roster of principles other than "the extension of white supremacy across the North American continent." ^[40]

The removal of Indians from their ancestral lands, so they could be more profitably replaced by Whites and their Black slaves in what became the Cotton Kingdom, "fixed the character of his political party" such that during the Second Party System "voting on Indian affairs proved to be the most consistent predictor of partisan affiliation." ^[40] According to political historian Joshua A. Lynn, "Democrats painted the political landscape as a Boschian triptych in which fiendish abolitionists, nativists, and temperance crusaders flayed men of their autonomy, manhood, and whiteness." ^[43] Per Lynn, the core principles of Jacksonism were white supremacy, the perpetuation of slavery, the ethnic cleansing of unceded Indigenous land claims within the territory of the United States, and mass politics, all guided by the worldview that "white men surrendered their sovereignty in proportion to its exercise by people of color." ^[44] The color line was the core value of Jacksonian democracy, in that whether the voters were "urban workingmen, southern planters and yeomen, or frontier settlers" they were unified by a "racial essentialism" that established whiteness as the basis for a voting bloc that might otherwise share few common interests. ^[44] Jacksonian democracy's great innovation was to create a cultural norm wherein by "superintending inequality at home...patriarchs mingled in public as equals." ^[45]

Founding of the Democratic Party

Jacksonian democracy

1837 cartoon playing on "Jackson" and "jackass", showing the Democratic Party as a donkey, which has remained its popular symbol into the 21st century

The spirit of Jacksonian democracy animated the party that formed around him, from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the era, with the Whig Party the main opposition. ^[46] The new Democratic Party became a coalition of poor farmers, city-dwelling laborers and Irish Catholics. ^[47]

The new party was pulled together by Martin Van Buren in 1828 as Jackson crusaded on claims of corruption by President John Quincy Adams. The new party (which did not get the name Democrats until 1834) swept to a landslide. As Mary Beth Norton explains regarding 1828:

Jacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party. ^[48]

The platforms, speeches and editorials were founded upon a broad consensus among Democrats. As Norton et al. explain:

The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed a central government as the enemy of individual liberty and they believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and created corporate monopolies that favored the rich. They sought to restore the independence of the individual—the artisan and the ordinary farmer—by ending federal support of banks and corporations and restricting the use of paper currency. ^[49]

Jackson vetoed more legislation than all previous presidents combined. The long-term effect was to create the modern, strong presidency. ^[50] Jackson and his supporters also opposed progressive reformation as a movement. Progressive reformers eager to turn their programs into legislation called for a more active government. However, Democrats tended to oppose programs like educational reform and the establishment of a public education system. For instance, they believed that public schools restricted individual liberty by interfering with parental responsibility and undermined freedom of religion by replacing church schools.

According to Francis Paul Prucha in 1969, Jackson looked at the Indian question in terms of military and legal policy, not as a problem due to their race. ^[51] In 1813, Jackson adopted and treated as his own son Lyncoya Jackson, who had been orphaned by Jackson's orders to John Coffee at the Battle of Tallusahatchee during the Creek War—seeing in him a fellow orphan that was "so much like myself I feel an unusual sympathy for him". ^[52] Lyncoya was one of three indigenous members of Andrew Jackson's household. Lyncoya's biography was used as a defense against charges that Jackson's Indian policies were inhumane as early as 1815, ^{[53] : 141} continuing and accelerating through the 1824 and 1828 presidential elections. Lyncoya died of tuberculosis during the course of the 1828 campaign, allowing his obituary to serve as a platform for such messages. ^[54]

In legal terms, when it became a matter of state sovereignty versus tribal sovereignty he went with the states and forced the Indians to fresh lands with no white rivals in what became known as the Trail of Tears.^{[ citation needed ]}

Among the leading followers was Stephen A. Douglas, senator from Illinois, who was the key player in the passage of the Compromise of 1850, and was a leading contender for the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination. According to his biographer Robert W. Johanssen:

Douglas was preeminently a Jacksonian, and his adherence to the tenets of what became known as Jacksonian democracy grew as his own career developed. ... Popular rule, or what he would later call popular sovereignty, lay at the base of his political structure. Like most Jacksonians, Douglas believed that the people spoke through the majority, that the majority will was the expression of the popular will. ^[1]

Reforms

A Democratic cartoon from 1833 shows Jackson destroying the Bank with his "Order for the Removal", to the annoyance of Bank President Nicholas Biddle, shown as the Devil himself. Numerous politicians and editors who were given favorable loans from the Bank run for cover as the financial temple crashes down. A famous fictional character, Major Jack Downing (right), cheers: "Hurrah! Gineral!"

Jackson fulfilled his promise of broadening the influence of the citizenry in government, although not without vehement controversy over his methods. ^[55]

Jacksonian policies included ending the bank of the United States, expanding westward and removing American Indians from the Southeast. Jackson was denounced as a tyrant by opponents on both ends of the political spectrum such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. This led to the rise of the Whig Party.

Jackson created a spoils system to clear out elected officials in government of an opposing party and replace them with his supporters as a reward for their electioneering. With Congress controlled by his enemies, Jackson relied heavily on the power of the veto to block their moves.

United States main postal mail roads c. 1834; the funding for the Maysville road would have improved the route from Lexington, Kentucky to the Ohio River at Maysville

One of the most important of these was the Maysville Road veto in 1830. A part of Clay's American System, the bill would have allowed for federal funding of a project to construct a road linking Lexington and the Ohio River, the entirety of which would be in the state of Kentucky, Clay's home state. His primary objection was based on the local nature of the project. He argued it was not the federal government's job to fund projects of such a local nature and/or those lacking a connection to the nation as a whole. The debates in Congress reflected two competing visions of federalism. The Jacksonians saw the union strictly as the cooperative aggregation of the individual states, while the Whigs saw the entire nation as a distinct entity. ^[56]

Carl Lane argues "securing national debt freedom was a core element of Jacksonian democracy". Paying off the national debt was a high priority which would make a reality of the Jeffersonian vision of America truly free from rich bankers, self-sufficient in world affairs, virtuous at home, and administered by a small government not prone to financial corruption or payoffs. ^[3]

What became of Jacksonian Democracy, according to Sean Wilentz was diffusion. Many ex-Jacksonians turned their crusade against the Money Power into one against the Slave Power and became Republicans. He points to the struggle over the Wilmot Proviso of 1846, the Free Soil Party revolt of 1848, and the mass defections from the Democrats in 1854 over the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Other Jacksonian leaders such as Chief Justice Roger B. Taney endorsed slaveholding rights through the 1857 Dred Scott ruling. Southern Jacksonians overwhelmingly endorsed secession in 1861, apart from a few opponents led by Andrew Johnson. In the North, Jacksonians Martin Van Buren, Stephen A. Douglas and the War Democrats fiercely opposed secession, while Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan and the Copperheads did not. ^[57]

Jacksonian Presidents

In addition to Jackson, his second Vice President and one of the key organizational leaders of the Jacksonian Democratic Party, Martin Van Buren, handily won the election of 1836. He helped shape modern presidential campaign organizations and methods. ^[58]

Van Buren was defeated in 1840 by Whig William Henry Harrison in a landslide. Harrison died just 30 days into his term and his Vice President John Tyler quickly reached accommodation with the Jacksonians. Tyler was then succeeded by James K. Polk, a Jacksonian who won the election of 1844 with Jackson's endorsement. ^[59] Franklin Pierce had been a supporter of Jackson as well. James Buchanan served in Jackson's administration as Minister to Russia and as Polk's Secretary of State, but he did not pursue Jacksonian policies. Finally, Andrew Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of Jackson, became president following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, but by then Jacksonian democracy had been pushed off the stage of American politics.

See also

• Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign
• History of the Democratic Party (United States)
• Jeffersonian democracy
• Populism in the United States
• Voting rights in the United States

Citations

1. Robert Walter Johannsen (1973). Stephen A. Douglas. University of Illinois Press. p. 137. ISBN   978-0-252-06635-1. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2018.
2. "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present". US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives. Retrieved November 29, 2024.
3. Carl Lane, "The elimination of the national debt in 2025 and the meaning of Jacksonian democracy." Essays in Economic & Business History 25 (2012) pp. 67-78.
4. Schlesinger, Arthur (1986). The cycles of American history. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-395-37887-8.
5. William S. Belko, "'A Tax On The Many, To Enrich A Few': Jacksonian Democracy Vs. The Protective Tariff." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 37.2 (2015): 277-289.
6. "Jacksonian Democracy". History.com. History. April 4, 2012. Archived from the original on March 24, 2022. Retrieved March 20, 2022. More loosely, it alludes to the entire range of democratic reforms that proceeded alongside the Jacksonians' triumph—from expanding the suffrage to restructuring federal institutions.
7. Eugenio F. Biagini, ed. (2004). Liberty, Retrenchment and Reform: Popular Liberalism in the Age of Gladstone, 1860-1880. Cambridge University Press. p. 108. ISBN   978-0-521-54886-1. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved November 3, 2022. ... which was one of the recurrent themes in European and in particular American radicalism: Jacksonian democrats were ...
8. Bradley, Harold W. (July 30, 2024). "Jacksonian Democracy". Britannica.com. Retrieved September 2, 2024. Not the least remarkable triumph of the Jacksonian organization was its success in picturing its candidate as the embodiment of democracy, despite the fact that Jackson had been aligned with the conservative faction in Tennessee politics for 30 years and that in the financial crisis that swept the West after 1819 he had vigorously opposed legislation for the relief of debtors.
9. The Providence (Rhode Island) Patriot 25 Aug 1839 stated: "The state of things in Kentucky ... is quite as favorable to the cause of Jacksonian democracy." cited in "Jacksonian democracy", Oxford English Dictionary (2019)
10. Engerman, pp. 15, 36. "These figures suggest that by 1820 more than half of adult white males were casting votes, except in those states that still retained property requirements or substantial tax requirements for the franchise – Virginia, Rhode Island (the two states that maintained property restrictions through 1840), and New York as well as Louisiana."
11. Warren, Mark E. (1999). Democracy and Trust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN   978-0-521-64687-1.
12. Howe 2009.
13. Moss 1975, pp. 147, 147n6.
14. Moss 1975, pp. 148–149.
15. Cole 1986, p. 151.
16. Remini, Robert V. (1999). "The Jacksonian Era". USHistory.org. Archived from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved May 21, 2022.
17. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (1945)
18. Engerman, p. 14. "Property- or tax-based qualifications were most strongly entrenched in the original thirteen states, and dramatic political battles took place at a series of prominent state constitutional conventions held during the late 1810s and 1820s."
19. Engerman, pp. 16, 35. "By 1840, only three states retained a property qualification, North Carolina (for some state-wide offices only), Rhode Island, and Virginia. In 1856 North Carolina was the last state to end the practice. Tax-paying qualifications were also gone in all but a few states by the Civil War, but they survived into the 20th century in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island."
20. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2nd ed. 2009) p 29
21. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Manifest Destiny (Greenwood Press, 2003).
22. M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Party System in the United States (1910)
23. Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002) pp 97-120
24. William Trimble, "The social philosophy of the Loco-Foco democracy." American Journal of Sociology 26.6 (1921): 705-715. in JSTOR Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
25. Louis Hartz, Economic Policy and Democratic Thought: Pennsylvania, 1776–1860 (1948)
26. Richard Hofstadter, "William Leggett, Spokesman of Jacksonian Democracy." Political Science Quarterly 58.4 (1943): 581-594. in JSTOR Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine .
27. Lawrence H. White, "William Leggett: Jacksonian editorialist as classical liberal political economist." History of Political Economy 18.2 (1986): 307-324.
28. Melvin I. Urofsky (2000). The American Presidents: Critical Essays. Taylor & Francis. p. 106. ISBN   978-0-203-00880-5.
29. Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America, From the Revolution to the Civil War (1957)
30. Howe (2007), p. unpag. ill..
31. "The County Election". Saint Louis Art Museum. Retrieved December 22, 2024.
32. Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2009) ch 2
33. Engerman, p. 8–9
34. Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 296. ISBN   978-0-495-90499-1. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
35. William G. Shade, "The Second Party System". in Paul Kleppner, et al. Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1983) pp 77-111
36. Engerman, p. 35. Table 1
37. William Preston Vaughn, The Anti-Masonic Party in the United States: 1826–1843 (2009)
38. Richard P. McCormick, The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era (1966).
39. Michael F. Holt, Political Parties and American Political Development: From the Age of Jackson to the Age of Lincoln (1992).
40. Howe 2007, pp. 356–357.
41. Hale, Will T.; Merritt, Dixon L. A History of Tennessee and Tennesseans. Vol. 2. p. 430. Retrieved January 12, 2025– via HathiTrust.
42. Abernethy (1927), p. 76.
43. Lynn (2019), pp. 12–14.
44. Lynn (2019), p. 29.
45. Lynn (2019), p. 59.
46. Lee Benson in 1957 dated the era from 1827 to 1853, with 1854 as the start of a new era. Lee Benson (2015). The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case. Princeton University Press. p. 128. ISBN   978-1-4008-6726-4. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2018.
47. Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2005).
48. Mary Beth Norton; et al. (2014). A People and a Nation, Volume I: to 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 348. ISBN   978-1-285-97467-5.
49. Mary Beth Norton; et al. (2007). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Volume I: To 1877. Cengage Learning. p. 327. ISBN   978-0-618-94716-4.
50. John Yoo, "Andrew Jackson and Presidential Power." Charleston Law Review 2 (2007): 521+ online Archived 2015-02-10 at the Wayback Machine .
51. Prucha, Francis Paul (1969). "Andrew Jackson's Indian policy: a reassessment". Journal of American History . 56 (3): 527–539. doi:10.2307/1904204. JSTOR   1904204.
52. Michael Paul Rogin (1991). Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. Transaction Publishers. p. 189. ISBN   978-1-4128-2347-0.
53. • Gismondi, Melissa (June 12, 2017). Rachel Jackson and the Search for Zion, 1760s–1830s (PhD, History thesis). Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia. doi:10.18130/v3q364.
54. Rosenwald, Michael S. (June 15, 2019). "Andrew Jackson slaughtered Indians. Then he adopted a baby boy he'd orphaned". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved October 14, 2024.
55. Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1993)
56. Wulf, Naomi (2001). "'The Greatest General Good': Road Construction, National Interest, and Federal Funding in Jacksonian America". European Contributions to American Studies. 47: 53–72.
57. Sean Wilentz, "Politics, Irony, and the Rise of American Democracy." Journal of The Historical Society 6.4 (2006): 537-553, at p. 538, summarizing his book The rise of American democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2006).
58. Mark R. Cheathem, The Coming of Democracy: Presidential Campaigning in the Age of Jackson (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018).
59. "James K. Polk: Life in Brief". Miller Center. Archived from the original on June 13, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2016.

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• Formisano, Ronald P. (1971). The Birth of Mass Political Parties: Michigan, 1827-1861 . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-04605-1. Uses quantitative electoral data.
• Formisano, Ronald P. (1983). The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-503124-9. Uses quantitative electoral data.
• Formisano, Ronald P. (1999). "The 'Party Period' Revisited". Journal of American History. 86 (1). Organization of American Historians: 93–120. doi:10.2307/2567408. JSTOR   2567408.
• Formisano, Ronald P. (1969). "Political Character, Antipartyism, and the Second Party System". American Quarterly. 21 (4). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 683–709. doi:10.2307/2711603. JSTOR   2711603.
• Formisano, Ronald P. (1974). "Deferential-Participant Politics: The Early Republic's Political Culture, 1789-1840". American Political Science Review. 68 (2). American Political Science Association: 473–487. doi:10.2307/1959497. JSTOR   1959497. S2CID   146879756.
• Hammond, Bray (1956). Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power". American Heritage. Archived from the original on September 27, 2018. Retrieved April 14, 2018. He would go on to develop this essay into his Pulitzer-prize-winning Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (1957).
• Hofstadter, Richard (1948). The American Political Tradition. Chapter on AJ.
• Hofstadter, Richard. "William Leggett: Spokesman of Jacksonian Democracy." Political Science Quarterly 58#4 (December 1943): 581–94. in JSTOR Archived 2018-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
• Hofstadter, Richard (1969). The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780-1840.
• Holt, Michael F. (1999). The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-505544-3.
• Holt, Michael F. (1992). Political Parties and American Political Development: From the Age of Jackson to the Age of Lincoln. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN   978-0-8071-1728-6.
• Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 . Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-507894-7. LCCN   2007012370. OCLC   122701433.
• Howe, Daniel Walker (May 28, 2009). "Goodbye to the 'Age of Jackson'?". New York Review of Books . ISSN   0028-7504.
• Kohl, Lawrence Frederick (1989). The Politics of Individualism: Parties and the American Character in the Jacksonian Era. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-505374-6.
• Kruman, Marc W. (1992). "The Second American Party System and the Transformation of Revolutionary Republicanism". Journal of the Early Republic. 12 (4). Society for Historians of the Early American Republic: 509–537. doi:10.2307/3123876. JSTOR   3123876.
• Lane, Carl. "The Elimination of the National Debt in 1835 and the Meaning Of Jacksonian Democracy." Essays in Economic & Business History 25 (2007). online Archived 2016-08-19 at the Wayback Machine
• Lynn, Joshua A. (2019). Preserving the White Man's Republic: Jacksonian Democracy, Race, and the Transformation of American Conservatism. A Nation Divided: Studies in the Civil War Era. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN   978-0-8139-4250-6. JSTOR   j.ctvc16sch. LCCN   2018052877. OCLC   1065821195. Project MUSE   book 63831.
• McCormick, Richard L. (1986). The Party Period and Public Policy: American Politics from the Age of Jackson to the Progressive Era. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-503860-6.
• McCormick, Richard P. (1966). The Second American Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Influential state-by-state study.
• McKnight, Brian D., and James S. Humphreys, eds. The Age of Andrew Jackson: Interpreting American History (Kent State University Press; 2012) 156 pages; historiography
• Mayo, Edward L. (1979). "Republicanism, Antipartyism, and Jacksonian Party Politics: A View from the Nation's Capitol". American Quarterly. 31 (1). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 3–20. doi:10.2307/2712484. JSTOR   2712484.
• Marshall, Lynn (1967). "The Strange Stillbirth of the Whig Party". American Historical Review. 72 (2). American Historical Association: 445–468. doi:10.2307/1859236. JSTOR   1859236.
• Moss, Richard J. (Summer 1975). "Jacksonian Democracy: A Note on the Origins and Growth or the Term". Tennessee Historical Quarterly . 34 (2): 145–153. JSTOR   42623515.
• Myers, Marvin (1957). The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics and Belief. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Pessen, Edward (1978). Jacksonian America: Society, Personality, and Politics.
• Pessen, Edward (1977). The Many-Faceted Jacksonian Era: New Interpretations. Important scholarly articles.
• Remini, Robert V. (1998). The Life of Andrew Jackson. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography.
• Remini, Robert V. (1959). Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party.
• Rowland, Thomas J. Franklin B. Pierce: The Twilight of Jacksonian Democracy (Nova Science Publisher's, 2012).
• Sellers, Charles (1991). The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846. Influential reinterpretation
• Shade, William G. "Politics and Parties in Jacksonian America," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography Vol. 110, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 483–507 online ^{[ permanent dead link ‍]}
• Shade, William G. (1983). "The Second Party System". In Kleppner, Paul; et al. (eds.). Evolution of American Electoral Systems. Uses quantitative electoral data.
• Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1945). The Age of Jackson. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History.
• Sellers, Charles (1958). "Andrew Jackson Versus the Historians". Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 44 (4). Organization of American Historians: 615–634. doi:10.2307/1886599. JSTOR   1886599.
• Sharp, James Roger (1970). The Jacksonians Versus the Banks: Politics in the States after the Panic of 1837. Uses quantitative electoral data.
• Silbey, Joel H. (1991). The American Political Nation, 1838-1893.
• Silbey, Joel H. (1973). Political Ideology and Voting Behavior in the Age of Jackson.
• Simeone, James. "Reassessing Jacksonian Political Culture: William Leggett's Egalitarianism." American Political Thought 4#3 (2015): 359–390. in JSTOR Archived 2016-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
• Syrett, Harold C. (1953). Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition.
• Taylor, George Rogers (1949). Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States. Excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
• Van Deusen, Glyndon G. (1963). The Jacksonian Era: 1828-1848. Standard scholarly survey.
• Wallace, Michael (1968). "Changing Concepts of Party in the United States: New York, 1815-1828". American Historical Review. 74 (2). American Historical Association: 453–491. doi:10.2307/1853673. JSTOR   1853673.
• Ward, John William (1962). Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age.
• Wellman, Judith. Grassroots Reform in the Burned-over District of Upstate New York: Religion, Abolitionism, and Democracy (Routledge, 2014).
• Wilentz, Sean (1982). "On Class and Politics in Jacksonian America". Reviews in American History. 10 (4). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 45–63. doi:10.2307/2701818. JSTOR   2701818.
• Wilentz, Sean (2005). The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. Highly detailed scholarly synthesis.
• Wilson, Major L. (1974). Space, Time, and Freedom: The Quest for Nationality and the Irrepressible Conflict, 1815-1861. Intellectual history of Whigs and Democrats.

Primary sources

• Blau, Joseph L., ed. Social Theories of Jacksonian Democracy: Representative Writings of the Period 1825–1850 (1954) online edition Archived 2009-06-04 at the Wayback Machine
• Eaton, Clement ed. The Leaven of Democracy: The Growth of the Democratic Spirit in the Time of Jackson (1963) online edition Archived 2009-06-04 at the Wayback Machine

External links

• American Political History Online Archived 2015-08-01 at the Wayback Machine
• Second Party System 1824–1860 short essays by scholar Michael Holt
• Tales of the Early Republic collection of texts and encyclopedia entries on Jacksonian Era, by Hal Morris
• Register of Debates in Congress, 1824–1837; complete text; searchable
• Daniel Webster
  • debate, 1830 on nullification & tariff ^{[ permanent dead link ‍]}
  • The works of Daniel Webster... 6 vol, 1853 edition
• Documents on Indian removal 1831–1833
• War with Mexico: links Archived 2015-08-01 at the Wayback Machine
• Hammond, The history of political parties in the state of New-York(1850) history to 1840 from MOA Michigan
• Triumph of Nationalism 1815–1850 study guides & teaching tools