Tongzhi | |||||||||||||
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Chinese | 同 志 | ||||||||||||
Literal meaning | 'same will', 'same purpose', 'comrade' | ||||||||||||
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Tongzhi is a form of style used in China. It has taken on various meanings in various contexts during the 20th century. It was first introduced into vernacular Chinese by Sun Yat-sen as a way of describing his followers. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC),tongzhi was used to mean "comrade" in a communist sense:it was used to address almost everyone,male and female,young and old. In recent years,however,this meaning of the term has fallen out of common usage,except within Chinese Communist Party (CCP) discourse and among people of older generations. [1]
In contemporary Taiwan,Macau,and Hong Kong,the term mainly refers to LGBT people instead of the traditional political usage. [2]
It remains in use in a formal context among political parties in both mainland China and Taiwan. In the CCP,categorizing a person as a comrade is especially significant for a person who has been denounced or demoted,because it indicates that the party has not completely rejected the person as "one of its own". In Taiwan,it also remains in formal usage in party politics. For example,after losing the 2008 presidential election,Frank Hsieh said:很多同志希望我能夠留到五月二十五日 'many comrades hoped that I could stay to May 25'. [3] In October 2016,the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms. [4] [5]
The word comrade is in the regulations of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position,as in "Comrade Colonel",or simply "comrade" when lacking information about the person's rank,or talking to several people.) [6]
Since the 1990s,the term is,however,increasingly being used to refer to sexual minorities in Macau and Hong Kong,and is increasingly used in mainland China and Taiwan,including lesbian,gay,bisexual and transgender people. [7] [8] This way of using the term was first adopted by Michael Lam,a columnist for the Hong Kong-based City Magazine ,and was popularized by the inaugural Hong Kong Lesbian and Gay Film Festival in 1989,whose aim was to present same-sex relationships as positive and suggesting solidarity between LGBT people,while also providing an indigenous term to describe same-sex love.
Tongzhi is preferred over tongxinglian ( 同 性 戀 )),the formal word for homosexuality,in LGBT communities,where the latter is seen as overly clinical and pathological in its connotations. [9] The use of tongzhi over tongxinglian roughly parallels the replacement of "homosexual" with "gay" in English-language discourse.[ citation needed ]
Although the term initially referred to gay (男同志 'male tongzhi') and lesbian (女同志 'female tongzhi')) people,in recent years its scope has gradually expanded to cover a wider spectrum of identities,analogous to "LGBTQ+". For example,Taiwan Pride can be translated literally as 'Taiwan tongzhi parade'. According to Chou Wah-shan,tongzhi is a fluid term that can refer to any person who is not heteronormativity,as well as a means of signifying "politics beyond the homo-hetero duality" and "integrating the sexual into the social". [1]
Homosexuality has been documented in China since ancient times. According to one study by Bret Hinsch,for some time after the fall of the Han dynasty,homosexuality was widely accepted in China but this has been disputed. Several early Chinese emperors are speculated to have had homosexual relationships accompanied by heterosexual ones. Opposition to homosexuality,according to the study by Hinsch,did not become firmly established in China until the 19th and 20th centuries through the Westernization efforts of the late Qing dynasty and early Republic of China. On the other hand,Gulik's study argued that the Mongol Yuan dynasty introduced a more ascetic attitude to sexuality in general.
Lan Yu is a 2001 gay-themed Hong Kong-Mainland Chinese film set in Beijing by Hong Kong director Stanley Kwan.
Shifu is a Chinese title meaning "skilled person","teacher",or "master" that is most often used in English to address a teacher of Chinese martial arts. It is also romanized as sifu from Cantonese or sai hu from Hokkien.
In political contexts,comrade means a fellow party member,commonly left-wing. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution,after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution,popular culture in the West has often associated it with communism. As such,it can be used as a derogatory reference to left-wingers,akin to "commie". In particular,the Russian word tovarishch may be used as derogatory reference to Communists.
Transgender is an overarching term to describe persons whose gender identity/expression differs from what is typically associated with the gender they were assigned at birth. Since "transgender studies" was institutionalized as an academic discipline in the 1990s,it is difficult to apply transgender to Chinese culture in a historical context. There were no transgender groups or communities in Hong Kong until after the turn of the century. Today they are still known as a "sexual minority" in China.
China does not recognize same-sex marriage or civil unions. Since 1 October 2017,couples have been able to enter into guardianship agreements,offering partners some limited legal benefits,including decisions about medical and personal care,death and funeral,property management,and maintenance of rights and interests. Attempts to legalise same-sex marriage in 2020 were unsuccessful,but public opinion polls show that support for same-sex marriage is rising in China.
Taiwan Pride is the annual LGBTQ pride parade in Taiwan. The parade was first held in 2003. Although joined by groups from all over the country,the primary location has always been the capital city of Taipei. The parade held in October 2019 attracted more than 200,000 participants,making it the largest gay pride event in East Asia. As of 2019,it is the largest in Asia ahead of Tel Aviv Pride in Israel,which is the largest in the Middle East. Taiwan LGBT Pride Community,the organizer of Taiwan LGBTQ Pride Parade,holds the parade on the last Saturday of October.
In Chinese-speaking societies around the world,an honorific title is attached after the family name of an individual when addressing that person. Aside from addressing colleagues or family of equal or lesser rank,it is considered impolite to refer to others by their name only.
Lesbian,gay,bisexual,and transgender (LGBT) people in the People's Republic of China (PRC) face legal and social challenges that are not experienced by non-LGBT residents. While both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal,same-sex couples are currently unable to marry or adopt,and households headed by such couples are ineligible for the same legal protections available to heterosexual couples. No explicit anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people are present in its legal system,nor do hate crime laws cover sexual orientation or gender identity.
The rights of lesbian,gay,bisexual,and transgender (LGBT) people in the Republic of China (Taiwan) are regarded as the most comprehensive of those in Asia. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal,and same-sex marriage was legalized on 24 May 2019,following a Constitutional Court ruling in May 2017. Same-sex couples are able to jointly adopt children since 2023. Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation,gender identity and gender characteristics in education has been banned nationwide since 2004. With regard to employment,discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation has also been prohibited by law since 2007.
Xiaomingxiong (1954–?) is the pen name of Wu XiaoMing,also known as Samshasha,is a veteran Hong Kong gay right activist and one of the first authors to study the history of homosexuality in China.
Lesbian,gay,bisexual,and transgender (LGBT) people in Hong Kong may face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents.
The Hong Kong Pride Parade is an annual march in Hong Kong in support of LGBT rights. Homosexuality has been legal in Hong Kong since 1991 but there is no legal recognition of any same-sex relationships and limited protection against discrimination.
The major religions in Taiwan are Buddhism and Taoism. In these religions,the beliefs present no arguable issues about LGBTQ people. There are no laws about punishing sodomy,which means a sexual relationship between males is not considered an abomination,unlike in many western and Abrahamic religions. However,it was long considered a taboo issue. When human rights issues were discussed in political arenas,the concept of Tongzhi became a key term among the politicians in Taiwan. When it emerged in political forums,Taiwanese people began to become familiar with the idea that Tongzhi people being a part of their culture. Yet still,LGBTQ people were not mentioned in Taiwanese law. Punishment for being part of the LGBTQ community did not exist,yet there was also not any welfare or protection for LGBTQ people.
The city of Shanghai,China,a global center for finance,technology,manufacturing,and transportation,has a presence of LGBT people.
Despite the history of colonisation and the resulting process of Westernisation since 1842,Hong Kong still embodies many aspects of Chinese traditional values towards sexuality. It is traditionally believed that heterosexuality is the nature,coherent,and privileged sexuality. Popular media marginalises and discriminates against LGBT members of Hong Kong in an attempt to maintain "traditional lifestyles".
This is a timeline of notable events in the history of non-heterosexual conforming people of Asian and Pacific Islander ancestry,who may identify as LGBTIQGNC,men who have sex with men,or related culturally-specific identities. This timeline includes events both in Asia and the Pacific Islands and in the global Asian and Pacific Islander diaspora,as the histories are very deeply linked. Please note:this is a very incomplete timeline,notably lacking LGBTQ-specific items from the 1800s to 1970s,and should not be used as a research resource until additional material is added.
The Hong Kong Lesbian &Gay Film Festival is an annual international film festival focused on LGBTQIA+ cinema,held each September in Hong Kong. Founded in 1989 by Edward Lam (林奕華),a Hong Kong film director and gay activist,it is considered to be the oldest LGBT film festival in Asia.
Lala is a non-derogatory Chinese slang term for lesbian,or a same-sex desiring woman. It is used primarily by the LGBT+ community in Mainland China. Beginning in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,lala communities started to form in urban areas of China,such as Beijing and Shanghai,using bars and online chatrooms to connect.
Tongzhi literature is a form of LGBT literature originating in Taiwan,with influences from mainland China,Hong Kong,and Chinese-speaking diaspora communities in countries such as Malaysia. Tongzhi is a term that formerly carried political connotations,but now is used among younger generations to refer to LGBT or queer people.
According to regulations, members of the PLA address each other: (1) by their duty position, or (2) by their position plus surname, or (3) by their position plus the title "comrade" (tongzhi). When the duty position of the other person is not known, one service member may address the other by military rank plus the word "comrade" or only as comrade.
While tóngxìnglìan may be perceived as a clinical term with pathological connotations, tóng zhì presents a more colloquial and euphemistic way of communicating the same meaning.