Comrade

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"Camaraderie" redirects here. For a definition of that term, see the Wiktionary entry camaraderie.For other uses, see Comrade (disambiguation).
World War I American Red Cross poster by Harrison Fisher, 1918 Harrison Fisher WWI American Red Cross poster.jpg
World War I American Red Cross poster by Harrison Fisher, 1918

In political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member, usually left-wing. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution, after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution, popular culture in the West has often associated it with communism. As such, it can be used as a derogatory reference to left-wingers, akin to "commie". In particular, the Russian word товарищ (tovarishch) may be used as derogatory reference to Communists.

Contents

Etymology

The term comrade generally means 'mate', 'colleague', or 'ally', and derives from the Spanish and Portuguese term camarada, [1] lit. 'chamber mate', from Latin camera, lit. 'chamber' or 'room'. [2] It may also specifically mean "fellow soldier", comrade in arms.

Background

Upon abolishing the titles of nobility in France, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, 'my lord' and 'my lady'), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen for men and citoyenne for women (both meaning 'citizen') to refer to each other. [3] The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege. [4]

When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists elsewhere began to look for a similar egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". In German, the word Kamerad had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship. [5] The term was often used with political overtones in the revolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the word comrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice . [6]

Political usage

Russian and Soviet usage

In the late 19th century, Russian Marxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted the word "tovarisch" (Russian : товарищ ) as a translation for the German term Kamerad . Originally, "tovarisch" meant "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate" deriving from the Old Turkic tavar ishchi; abbreviated tov., and related to the noun товар (tovar, meaning 'merchandise') [7] [8] . In socialist and labour movements, it became a common form of address, as in Tovarisch Plekhanov or TovarischChairman or simply as Tovarisch (especially German) social democracy. After the Russian Revolution, translations of "tovarisch" spread globally among communists, though the term "comrade" became closely associated with the Soviet Union specifically in the eyes of many. [9]

With the February Revolution of 1917, traditional forms of address common in Tsarist Russia would become deeply unpopular and were replaced by the more republican and egalitarian title of citizen. However, this would be overshadowed by the address of comrade due to the more revolutionary connotations. The term "citizen" did not seem sufficiently pro-revolutionary as many monarchists identified themselves as 'Russian citizens and loyal subjects of the sovereign-Emperor'. In contrast being called "comrade" implied a kind of revolutionary zeal and exceptionalism. Yet, it was widely used across society-socialists in the Provisional Government were known as 'comrade ministers', policemen and Cossacks were addressed as 'comrades', and even rural witch-doctors became 'comrade spirits'. [10]

During the revolutionary period, once the Bolsheviks had taken power, they continued to use "comrade" to address or refer to people presumed to be sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as workers, members of the Communist Party, and (for a time) Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. For everyone else, citizen was the preferred term; however, it could also serve as an insult especially if the individual expected a more respectful address. For instance, the guards Nicholas II's deliberately called 'citizen Romanov' during his captivity. The anti-Bolshevik socialists, such as the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks, also addressed each other as "comrade", while the Whites mockingly, referred to their enemies as 'the comrades'. [9] As discontent with the Bolshevik regime grew, even within the Soviet camp, comrade could be seen as an insult. in one instance, a woman on a Petrograd tram, when addressed as "comrade", replied: 'What's all this 'comrade' talk? Take your 'comrade' and go to hell!". [11]

By the mid-1920s, the address Tovarisch had become so widespread in the Soviet Union that it was used casually as titles like "Mister" or "Sir" in English. That use persisted until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Still, the original meaning partly re-surfaced in some contexts: criminals and suspects were only addressed as "citizens" and not as tovarischi, and expressly refusing to address someone as tovarisch would generally be perceived as a hostile act or, in Stalinist times, even as an accusation of being "Anti-Soviet". [12]

Chinese usage

In Chinese, the translation of comrade is 同志 (pinyin :tóng zhì), literally meaning '(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc.'. It was first introduced in the political sense by Sun Yat-sen to refer to his followers.[ citation needed ] The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), which was co-founded by Sun Yat-Sen, has a long tradition of using this term to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Chang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)." [13]

Nevertheless, the term was promoted most actively by the Chinese Communist Party during its struggle for power. It was used both as a noun and as a title for basically anyone in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded. For example, women were nü tongzhi ('female comrade'), children were xiao tongzhi ('little comrade') and seniors were lao tongzhi ('old comrade'). However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of such daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Chinese Communist Party. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as tóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.[ citation needed ]

At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Tongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (e.g., Comrade Mao Zedong, Comrade Deng Xiaoping).[ citation needed ]

In October 2016, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms. [14] [15] It is also in the regulations of the Chinese Armed Forces as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade/s" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several servicepeople.) [16]

The SAR territories of Hong Kong and Macau generally use tongzhi as a catch-all term to refer to members of the LGBT community; its use as a word for "comrade" has historically been uncommon due to both territories formerly being under foreign administrations. This definition of tongzhi is becoming increasingly popular among mainland Chinese youth and a growing number of older Chinese people have stopped using tongzhi due to its new association with the LGBT community. [17]

South African usage

During the 1970s and 1980s, comrade emerged as a popular revolutionary form of address in South Africa among those involved in anti-apartheid political activities. [18] For example, members of the African National Congress and South African Communist Party frequently referred to each other as comrade. [19]

Among poor residents of the country's segregated townships, it was also used to specifically denote members of militant youth organisations. [20] These radical activists led consumer boycotts, organised anti-apartheid rallies and demonstrations, and intimidated those suspected of having ties to the South African government or security forces. [20] In this particular context, the English title comrades was also used interchangeably with the Xhosa term amabutho. [20]

Zimbabwean usage

In Zimbabwe, the term is used for persons affiliated with the ZANU–PF political party. [21] [22] The state media also use Cde as short for comrade. [23] [24] Members of other political parties mainly the Movement for Democratic Change are often referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof.[ citation needed ]

The revived Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) members also call themselves comrades.[ citation needed ]

South Sudanese usage

Members of the Sudan People's Liberation Army call each other 'Comrade'. [25]

British usage

The British Union of Fascists used the word commonly to refer to members. Their marching song, set to the music of the Horst-Wessel-Lied began 'Comrades, the voices'. The writer, E.D. Randall, defended the usage of the word by stating that 'comrades' ‘fittingly and completely expresses the ideal of unity in the service of a common cause’ [26]

Kenyan usage

In Kenya, the use of the word comrade is in a more traditional sense to mean 'member'. It is commonly used by trade unionists, political parties and University students as a form of solidarity and common identity. It features prominently in chant songs by University student leaders and popular youth culture as a term of endearment. [27]

Cuban usage

In Cuba the corresponding revolutionary form of address was compañero, e.g., Compañero Fidel; see Cuban Spanish

In other languages

See also

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References

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  2. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
  3. ↑ Jennifer Ngaire Heuer (2007). The Family and the Nation: Gender and Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789–1830. Cornell University Press. pp. 11–. ISBN   978-0-8014-7408-8 – via Google Books.
  4. ↑ "Louis XVI et le citoyen Capet". L'Humanité . 11 August 2009.
  5. ↑ Barrie Pitt; Peter Young (1971). History of the First World War. Purnell – via Google Books.
  6. ↑ Kirsten Harris (29 January 2016). Walt Whitman and British Socialism: 'The Love of Comrades'. Routledge. pp. 13–. ISBN   978-1-317-63481-2 – via Google Books.
  7. ↑ Anrede "Genosse" nicht mehr zeitgemäß
  8. ↑ "Schlagworte: Genosse - Genossin". textlog.de.
  9. 1 2 Smele, Jonathan D. (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926. United States: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 289. ISBN   978-1-4422-5281-3.
  10. ↑ Figes, Orlando; Kolonitskii, Boris (1999). Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917. Great Britain: Yale University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN   0-300-08106-5.
  11. ↑ Figes, Orlando (1996). A People's Tragedy, The Russian Revolution 1891-1924 (100th Anniversary ed.). Great Britain: The Bodley Head (published 2017). p. 694. ISBN   9781847924513.
  12. ↑ И.С. Выходцева (4–6 October 2004). K.R. Galiullina (ed.). O probleme obshcheupotrebitel'nogo obrashcheniya v russkom yazykeО проблеме общеупотребительного обращения в русском языке [On the problem of common circulation in the Russian language]. Русская и сопоставительная филология: состояние и перспективы: Международная научная конференция, посвященная 200-летию Казанского университета [Russian and comparative philology: state and prospects: International scientific conference dedicated to the 200th anniversary of Kazan University] (in Russian). Kazan. pp. 211–212. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 18 January 2009.
  13. ↑ See, for example, the remarks of Frank Hsieh after losing the Republic of China presidential election in 2008: 凝聚黨內團結　謝長廷：我決定留到五二五 Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine : "很多同志希望我能夠留到五月二十五日" ("Many comrades hoped that I could stay to May 25". See 中國國民黨第17屆中央委員會第2次全體會議出、列席同志發言須知 Archived 2008-05-03 at the Wayback Machine ("Rules for speaking for attending comrades at the 2nd plenary meeting of the 17th central committee of the Chinese Kuomintang") for an example of its usage in the Kuomintang.
  14. ↑ "Xuéxí shíbào" 学习时报 [Learning Times]. dzb.studytimes.cn. Archived from the original on 2016-11-24. Retrieved 2016-11-23.
  15. ↑ "China: Keep using 'comrade', says Communist Party". BBC News Online . 19 November 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  16. ↑ Blasco, Dennis J (2011). "The Four General Departments". The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN   978-0415783224. According to regulations, members of the PLA address each other: (1) by their duty position, or (2) by their position plus surname, or (3) by their position plus the title "comrade" (tongzhi). When the duty position of the other person is not known, one service member may address the other by military rank plus the word "comrade" or only as comrade.
  17. ↑ Qin, Amy (15 November 2016). "Xi Jinping Wants to Be 'Comrade.' For Gay Chinese, That Means Something Else". The New York Times. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  18. ↑ Jaster, Robert Scott (1992). South Africa's Other Whites: Voices for Change. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. p. 110. ISBN   978-0333522080.
  19. ↑ Sechaba, Tsepo; Ellis, Stephen (1992). Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 72. ISBN   978-0253210623.
  20. 1 2 3 Bornman, Elirea; van Eeden, Renee; Wentzel, Marie (1998). Violence in South Africa: A Variety of Perspectives. Pretoria: HRSC, Publishers. p. 110. ISBN   978-0796918581.
  21. ↑ "EARLIER: End of an era for President Mugabe ... - The Herald". www.herald.co.zw.
  22. ↑ "Mnangagwa flees Zimbabwe - The Zimbabwean". 8 November 2017.
  23. ↑ "President Mugabe out, Cde Mnangagwa in - ZBC News Online". www.zbc.co.zw. Archived from the original on 2017-11-21. Retrieved 2017-11-19.
  24. ↑ "Cde Chipanga apologises to ZDF Commander - ZBC News Online". www.zbc.co.zw. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. Retrieved 2017-11-19.
  25. ↑ Saskia Baas (2012). From Civilians to Soldiers and from Soldiers to Civilians: Mobilization and Demobilization in Sudan. Amsterdam University Press. p. 76. ISBN   978-90-8964-396-4.
  26. ↑ Macklin, Graham; Graham, Macklin (September 2013). "'Onward Blackshirts!' Music and the British Union of Fascists". Patterns of Prejudice. 47 (4–5): 430–457. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2013.845447. S2CID   143471819.
  27. ↑ "EARLIER: Type of comrades you'll find in university ... - The Standard". www.standardmedia.co.ke.
  28. ↑ Wei, Wei; Yan, Yunxiang (2021). "Rainbow parents and the familial model of tongzhi (LGBT) activism in contemporary China". Chinese Sociological Review. 53 (5). Taylor & Francis: 451–472. doi:10.1080/21620555.2021.1981129. S2CID   241258297.
  29. ↑ "NSB, Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging". Verzetsmuseum. Archived from the original on 2009-05-31. Retrieved 2009-06-29.
  30. ↑ "Esperanto GCSE Wordlist". Archived from the original on 2017-05-31. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
  31. ↑ Agus R. Sardjono (2001). Bahasa dan bonafiditas hantu [Language and the genuineness of ghosts] (in Indonesian). IndonesiaTera. p. 3. ISBN   9789799375162.
  32. ↑ Atilla Çetin. "Garp Ocaklarında Türk Varlığı". Archived from the original on 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2019-07-26.
  33. ↑ Ukraine's parliament approves new army, police greeting, UNIAN (4 October 2018)
  34. ↑ Rada approves salute 'Glory to Ukraine' in Ukrainian army, Interfax-Ukraine (4 October 2018)
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