A veche [a] was a popular assembly during the Middle Ages. The veche is mentioned during the times of Kievan Rus' and it later became a powerful institution in Russian cities such as Novgorod and Pskov, [1] where the veche acquired great prominence and was broadly similar to the Norse thing or the Swiss Landsgemeinde . [2] The last veche meeting was held in Pskov before the institution was abolished in 1510. [3]
The word veche is a transliteration of the Russian "вече" (pl. веча, vecha), which is in turn inherited from Proto-Slavic *vě̑ťe (lit. 'council, counsel' or 'talk'), which is also represented in the word soviet , both ultimately deriving from the Proto-Slavic verbal stem of *větiti'to talk, speak').
Procopius of Caesarea mentioned Slavs gathering in popular assemblies in the 6th century: [4]
But when the report was carried about and reached the entire nation, practically all the Antae assembled to discuss the situation, and they demanded that the matter be made a public one(...). For these nations, the Sclaveni and the Antae, are not ruled by one man, but they have lived from of old under a democracy, and consequently everything which involves their welfare, whether for good or ill, is referred to the people. [5]
The veche is thought to have originated in the tribal assemblies of Eastern Europe, thus predating the state of Kievan Rus'. [6] [7] [8] Although most authors have adopted this view, the evidence is not abundant and is mainly based on the statement of Procopius and a few other communications from foreign authors such as Byzantine emperor Maurice's Strategikon , as well as a few chronicle mentions. [8] The Poliane in Kiev, according to the Primary Chronicle , are said to have consulted among themselves (s"dumavshe poliane) before deciding to ultimately pay tribute to the Khazars. [4] The words duma and dumati are used in later instances to refer to the activities of the veche. [4] The Primary Chronicle also indicates the recognition of the people as a separate political agent in a 944 treaty with the Byzantine Empire: "And our grand prince Igor and his boyars, and the whole people of Rus have sent us". [4]
The earliest mentions of the veche in chronicles refer to examples in Belgorod in 997, [9] Novgorod in 1016, [10] and Kiev in 1068. [11] A central role of the veche is found in the Suzdal Chronicle under the year 1176: "From of old the people of Novgorod, of Smolensk, of Kiev, of Polotsk, and of all the lands have assembled for counsel in veches". [11] Some scholars have used this quote in their argument that the veche was a universal occurrence and has immemorial origins. [11] The assemblies discussed matters of war and peace, adopted laws, and called for and expelled rulers. In Kiev, the veche was summoned in front of the Cathedral of St. Sophia.
The majority of references to veche meetings during the Kievan period is connected with dynastic crises. [12] There are not many references of a veche in towns in the 11th century, but there are significantly more in the 12th century, with such references mostly concerning Novgorod and Pskov. [4] [13] Medieval chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle, and the Novgorod First Chronicle for Novgorod especially, are the basic source regarding the veche. [4] The Primary Chronicle remains the main source for the early history of Kievan Rus', but its narrative ends at 1116. [14] The next generation of chronicles, including the Suzdal Chronicle, are also important sources. [4] Following the Mongol invasions, most references concern Novgorod and Pskov. [14]
Most of the information about the veche concerns the 13th to 15th centuries. [15] For veche proceedings, the veche had to be convoked first, often by the prince, but the main topic of the meeting usually was about a conflict between the prince and the population. [15] As a result, there was no regular procedure to be followed, which often led to violence among the participants. [16] There are several mentions of the prince being deposed and the crowd pillaging the residence of the prince. [16] Not much is known about actual proceedings except that the bishop could function as the chairman, while in other instances, the prince could assume this role. [15] The chronicles also mention the existence of a veche bell in not only Novgorod and Pskov, but also in Vladimir. [16] Almost all that is known about treaty-making activities of towns concerns Novgorod, and to a lesser extent, Pskov. [17]
During Tatar rule, there was little room for veche independence. [18] The cities in the northwest were less affected by Tatar overlordship, and so the institution survived longer there. [19] In 1262, veche meetings were held in Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir and Yaroslavl, in which it was decided to throw out the tax collectors sent by the Tatars. [18] In 1304, the citizens of Kostroma and Nizhny Novgorod rebelled against the local aristocracy at the veche meetings. [18] There is also a final mention of a veche meeting in Moscow in 1382, when Tokhtamysh had launched a campaign against Dmitry Donskoy. [18] The latter had fled to Kostroma while the former had captured Serpukhov near the city of Moscow. [18] Nikolay Karamzin said that the people of Moscow "at the sound of the bells assembled for a veche, remembering the ancient right of the Russian citizens to decide their own fate in important situations by a majority of votes". [18]
A semi-legendary account of Aleksandr of Suzdal (r. 1309–1331) moving the veche bell from Vladimir to his appanage center Suzdal during his reign as grand prince is found in chronicles: [20] [21]
This Prince Alexander from Vladimir took the veche bell from the Church of the Holy Mother of God to Suzdal and the bell ceased to ring as in Vladimir. And Prince Alexander thought he had been rude to the Holy Mother of God, and he ordered it taken back to Vladimir. And when the bell was brought back and installed in its place, its peal once again became acceptable to God. [21]
— Novgorod First Chronicle
The Novgorod veche was the highest legislative and judicial authority in the city until 1478, after Novgorod was formally annexed by Ivan III. [22] Each of the kontsy (boroughs or "ends") of Novgorod also had their own veche to elect borough officials. [13] The veche for the city selected the prince, posadnik and archbishop. [13]
Historians debate whether the Novgorod veche consisted of entirely free males or was instead dominated by a small group of nobles known as boyars. [13] The Novgorod veche grew to become more structured in a way that it could be compared to similar bodies in Italian and Flemish towns during the same period. [23] Traditional scholarship argues that a series of reforms in 1410 transformed the veche into something similar to the public assembly ( Concio ) of the Republic of Venice; it became the lower chamber of the parliament. An upper chamber knowns as the Council of Lords (sovet gospod) was also created which oversaw the veche, [13] with title membership for all former city magistrates ( posadniki and tysyatskiye ). Some sources indicate that veche membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called vechniki. Some recent scholars call this interpretation into question.
The Novgorod veche could be presumably summoned by anyone who rang the veche bell, although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. The whole population of the city, including boyars, merchants, and common citizens, then gathered in front of the Cathedral of Saint Sophia or at Yaroslav's Court on the Trade Side. [13]
Of all other towns of Novgorod Land, the chronicles only mention a veche in Torzhok; however they possibly existed in all other towns as well. [24] [25]
The veche of the Pskov Land and later Pskov Republic had legislative powers; it could appoint military commanders and hear ambassadors' reports. It also approved expenses such as grants to princes and payments to builders of walls, towers and bridges. [26] The veche gathered at the court of the Trinity Cathedral, which held the archives of the veche and important private papers and state documents. The veche assembly included posadniki (mayors), "middle" and common people. [27] Historians differ on the extent to which the veche was dominated by the elites, with some saying that real power was held in the hands of boyars, with others considering the veche to be a democratic institution. [28] Conflicts were common and the confrontation between the veche and the posadniki in 1483–1484 led to the execution of one posadnik and the confiscation of the property of three other posadniki who fled to Moscow. [29] The most significant achievement of the Pskov veche was the adoption of the Pskov Judicial Charter, likely after 1462, which was the most comprehensive Russian legislation enacted until the Sudebnik of 1497 under Ivan III, the first collection of laws of the unified state. [23]
In the autumn of 1509, Grand Prince Vasily III visited Novgorod, where he received complaints from the Pskov veche against the Muscovite governor of the city. [30] At first, Vasily encouraged complaints against the governor, but soon demanded that the city abolish its traditional institutions, including the removal of the veche bell. [30] From that point on, Pskov was to be ruled exclusively by his governors and officials, and on 13 January 1510, the veche bell was removed and transported to Moscow. [30]
The veche, known in Poland as wiec, were convened even before the beginning of the Polish statehood in the Kingdom of Poland. [31] Issues were first debated by the elders and leaders, and later presented to all the free men for a wider discussion. [31] [32]
One of the major types of wiec was the one convened to choose a new ruler. [31] There are legends of a 9th-century election of the legendary founder of the Piast dynasty, Piast the Wheelwright, and a similar election of his son, Siemowit, but sources for that time come from the later centuries and their validity is disputed by scholars. [33] [34] The election privilege was usually limited to the elites, [31] which in the later times took the form of the most powerful nobles (magnates, princes) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler. [35] By the 12th or 13th century, the wiec institution likewise limited its participation to high ranking nobles and officials. [32] The nationwide gatherings of wiec officials in 1306 and 1310 can be seen as precursors of the Polish parliament (the General Sejm). [32]
Vladimir-Suzdal, formally known as the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal or Grand Principality of Vladimir (1157–1331), also as Suzdalia or Vladimir-Suzdalian Rus', was one of the major principalities emerging from Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century, centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With time the principality grew into a grand principality divided into several smaller principalities. After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, the principality became a self-governed state headed by its own nobility. A governorship of the principality, however, was prescribed by a jarlig issued from the Golden Horde to a Rurikid sovereign.
Yuri I Vladimirovich, commonly known as Yuri Dolgorukiy or the Long Arm, was a Monomakhovichi prince of Rostov and Suzdal, acquiring the name Suzdalia during his reign. Noted for successfully curbing the privileges of the landowning boyar class in Rostov-Suzdal and his ambitious building programme, Yuri transformed this principality into the independent power that would evolve into early modern Muscovy. Yuri Dolgorukiy was the progenitor of the Yurievichi, a branch of the Monomakhovichi.
The Principality or, from 1253, Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, also known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia or Kingdom of Rus, was a medieval state in Eastern Europe which existed from 1199 to 1349. Its territory was predominantly located in modern-day Ukraine, with parts in Belarus, Poland, Moldova, and Lithuania. Along with Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal, it was one of the three most important powers to emerge from the collapse of Kievan Rus'.
Andrey Bogolyubsky, was Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal from 1157 until his death. During repeated internecine wars between the princely clans, Andrey accompanied his father Yuri Dolgorukiy during a brief capture of Kiev in 1149. 20 years later, his son led the Sack of Kiev (1169). He was canonized as a saint in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1702.
The Novgorod Republic was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod. The republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, and its people were much influenced by the culture of the Byzantines, with the Novgorod school of icon painting producing many fine works.
Vseslav Bryachislavich was Prince of Polotsk (1044–1101) and Grand Prince of Kiev (1068–1069). Together with Rostislav Vladimirovich and voivode Vyshata, he created a coalition against the Yaroslaviches' triumvirate. Polotsk's Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, completed in the mid-11th century, is one of the most enduring monuments from his reign and the oldest stone building in Belarus.
A posadnik was a representative of the prince in some towns during the times of Kievan Rus', and later the highest-ranking official (mayor) in Novgorod and Pskov.
The Pskov Republic was a city-state in northern Russia. It won its formal independence from the Novgorod Republic in 1348. Its capital city was Pskov and its territory was roughly equivalent to modern-day Pskov Oblast.
A tysiatskii, sometimes translated dux or herzog, was a military leader in Kievan Rus' who commanded a people's volunteer army called a thousand. In the Novgorod Republic, the tysyatskii evolved into a judicial or commercial official and was elected from boyars at a veche for a period of one year. In cities with no veche, tysyatskiis were appointed by the knyaz or prince from among the noble boyars and could hand down their post to their sons.
Ontsifor Lukinich was a posadnik of Novgorod the Great in 1350–1354. He came from a Novgorodian boyar family that gave a number of posadniks to the city. He is most famous for reforming the office in 1359, increasing the number of posadniks and creating a ruling collective in the city.
According to the traditional scholarship, the veche was the highest legislative and judicial authority in Veliky Novgorod until 1478, when the Novgorod Republic was brought under the direct control of the Grand Duke of Moscow, Ivan III.
The Prince of Polotsk ruled the Principality of Polotsk within the realm of Kievan Rus' or within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the mid-9th century to 1307.
The Principality of Moscow, from 1363 the Grand Principality of Moscow, was a medieval Russian principality. Its capital was the city of Moscow.
Veliky Novgorod, also known simply as Novgorod (Новгород), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen and is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and Saint Petersburg. UNESCO recognized Novgorod as a World Heritage Site in 1992. The city has a population of 224,286 (2021 Census).
Novgorodian Land was one of the largest historical territorial–state formations in Russia, covering its northwest and north. Novgorod Land, centered in Veliky Novgorod, was in the cradle of Kievan Rus' under the rule of the Rurikid dynasty and one of the most important princely thrones of the era. During the collapse of Kievan Rus' and in subsequent centuries, Novgorod Land developed as the Novgorod Republic: an autonomous state with republican forms of government under the suzerainty of the great princes of Vladimir-Suzdal. During the period of greatest development, it reached north to the White Sea, and in the east it has been claimed that it did spread beyond the Ural Mountains. It had extensive trade relations within the framework of the Hanseatic League and with the rest of Rus'. The Principality of Moscow conquered the Novgorod Republic in 1478, and annexed it in 1578, although Novgorod Land continued to exist as an administrative unit until 1708.
The economy of the Pskov Republic (1348–1510) was dominated by merchants trading to and from the city of Pskov and the associated Pskov Land, primarily via the river Velikaya and connected waterways. It also had well-developed farming, fishing, blacksmithing, jewellery-making and construction industries.
The armies of the Rus' principalities emerged in the 13th century out of the military of Kievan Rus', shattered by the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'. The princely Rus' armies from 1240 to 1550 were characterised by feudalism, consisting of cavalry armies of noble militia and their armed servants.
The sack of Kiev took place on 8–12 March 1169 when a coalition of 11 princes, assembled by prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of Vladimir-Suzdal, attacked the Kievan Rus' capital city of Kiev during the 1167–1169 Kievan succession crisis. The conflict, caused by the death of grand prince Rostislav I of Kiev, was between rival branches of the Monomakhovichi clan: the Iziaslavichi of Volhynia on the one hand, and the Rostislavichi of Smolensk, the Yurievichi, and the Olgovichi of Chernigov on the other. Prince Mstislav II of Kiev sought to defend Kiev against the Rostislavichi–Yurievichi–Olgovichi coalition.
The battle and siege of Vyshgorod took place in late 1173, during the 1171–1173 Kievan succession crisis. Commanding another broad coalition army, prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of Vladimir-Suzdal launched a second campaign against Kiev, capital city of Kievan Rus'. After the conquest and sack of Kiev in March 1169 by an earlier coalition assembled by Andrey, his brother Gleb of Pereyaslavl had been installed as the new grand prince, only to die under suspicious circumstances in January 1171. A series of princes briefly reigned in Kiev thereafter, with Andrey usually managing to put his preferred candidates on its throne, until his brother Vsevolod "the Big Nest" was driven out by the Rostislavichi of Smolensk in April 1172, enthroning Rurik Rostislavich. Andrey was most displeased when he heard about this, and assembled another coalition army under his son Yury to militarily enforce his will on Kiev.
Aleksandr Vasilyevich was Prince of Suzdal from 1309 and Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1328 until his death in 1331.
