The Inscription
| Original Greek text (IG II² 4548) | English translation |
|---|
Ξενοκράτεια Κηφισο̑ ἱερ- ὸν ἱδρύσατο καὶ ἀνέθηκεν ξυνβώμοις τε θεοῖς διδασκαλ- ίας τόδε δῶρον, Ξενιάδο θυγάτ- ηρ καὶ μήτηρ ἐκ Χολλειδῶν, θύεν τῶι βουλομένωι ἐπὶ τελεστῶν ἀγαθῶν. | Xenokrateia to Kephisos a sanctuary has founded and dedicated [it] to [him] and to the gods who share this altar in thanks for ta didaskalia, the daughter and the mother of Xeniades of Choleidai, whoever wishes, is permitted to sacrifice for the fulfillment of good things |
This inscription has generated many – and sometimes contradicting – interpretations. First, there is some disagreement regarding Xenokrateia's familial status. Most scholars agree that both her father and son were named Xeniades, and that her husband is not mentioned in the inscription. Mclees thinks she was a widow or maybe that she was not legally married, [2] Kron believes she was an heiress who did not need a guardian, [3] and Purvis suggests that Xenokrateia was married to Kephisodotos, who dedicated the other relief mentioned earlier. [4] Cook, however, claims Xenokrateia was the wife of Xeniades, and that she dedicated the relief “as daughter (before her marriage) and mother (after it).” [5]
In addition, scholars are divided in their opinions on how to translate ta didaskalia and to what it refers, since no other information is given for the reason behind the dedication. This phrase is usually translated as “instructions,” “teachings,” “upbringing,” or “training.” One of the interpretations suggests that the relief was given in thanks for the education of Xenokrateia's son. Yet it was also claimed that since dedications are given to the gods only after they fulfill what was asked of them, Xenokrateia is thanking the god for her own education which she now uses in order to educate her son. Other suggestions are that this is an act in which Xenokrateia places her son under the protection of Kephisos, or that it was given in thanks after her son won a singing competition. [6]
The relief
The main problem regarding this relief is the identification of the thirteen figures portrayed on it. Unfortunately, most of the figures lack attributes, thus they cannot be identified with certainty, and scholars vary in their opinions in this regard, since such little secure evidence leaves a great room for hypothesis and guesswork. For example, while it is clear that the third figure from the left is holding an object, it is unclear what it is. It was identified as a kerykeion, meaning the figure is Hermes, as a loom, claiming that this is Rhapso, one of the Moirai, who weave the destinies of men, and as a torch held by Artemis. The attributes of the figures on the relief must have been painted on rather than carved, since otherwise they would make less sense to the visitors of the sanctuary. Most scholars assume that the two figures in the smaller scale are Xenokrateia and her son, and that she is introducing him to Kephisos, so that the god may oversee the boy's growth to adulthood.
The Inscribed Stele
In order to decipher the composition of the Xenokrateia Relief and to identify the figures portrayed on it, scholars use the two other finds from the site. The first is an inscribed stele with names of some divinities in the dative case, and it is understood by some as the sacrificial regulation of the sanctuary. However, since there is no mention of a cult, a sacrifice, or any instructions, others consider this stele as another votive offering. The names inscribed upon the stele are Hestia, Kephisos, Apollo Pythios, Leto, Artemis Lochia (of birth), Eileithyia, Acheloos, Kallirohe, the Geraistian nymphs of birth, and Rhapso. This is an interesting list, as most of these deities were perceived as nurturing and protecting children. Unfortunately, this list cannot represent the gods in our relief, since while the relief depicts five gods and six goddesses, the stele names three gods and nine goddesses, assuming that there are three Geraistian nymphs, since nymphs are usually depicted in groups of three in Athenian art. However, some of the deities named on the stele might also appear on our relief.
The Kephisodotos Relief
Next is the double relief of Kephisodotos, also dated to 410 BCE. On one side it depicts the hero Acheloos, kidnapping a nymph whose name is inscribed as Iasila, [7] while Hermes is leading the chariot. On the other side, Kephisos, depicted as a horned god, stands in the middle. On the right are three nymphs and on the left appear two other unidentified figures. The inscription says it is a dedication to Hermes and the nymphs, thus demonstrating that there were even more divinities associated with this sanctuary.
The Imagery
The one certain identification on the Xenokrateia relief is the figure on the far left. This is the god Apollo, sitting on a tripod, resting his legs on an Omphalos, near to which stands an eagle. The figure to his right is usually identified as Apollo's mother, Leto, or as his sister, Artemis. Some scholars identify Artemis as the third figure from the left, while others identify it as Hermes, Leto, Rhapso, or an unidentified youth. The two figures of a smaller scale are almost unanimously identified as Xenokrateia and her son, Xeniades, since Greek art usually depict humans as smaller than deities. The figure who interacts with Xenokrateia and her son is usually identified as either Kephisos or merely a priest.
There is a great uncertainty regarding the next five figures, and there are many possible identifications for them, namely Hestia, Eileithyia, Leto, Rhapso, nymphs or river-gods such as Kephisos or Ilisos. Finally, of the two figures on the far right, the one on the top is understood to be Kallirhoe or a statue of hers, although some suggest it is Eileithyia or Hecate, and the bull-like deity on the bottom, is identified as the river-god Acheloos by almost all scholars.
Thus, most of the suggestions identify Xenokrateia and her son in this relief and attempt to match to them the relevant deities. However, there is one interpretation that deviates from this line of thought. Stais claims that this relief depicts the mythological participants of the Athenian myth of Ion, in which the Athenian princess Creusa was raped by Apollo and gave birth to his son, Ion, whom she exposed to the elements. He was rescued by Apollo, however, and guided to Delphi by Hermes. Years later, when Creusa arrived to Delphi with her husband, Xuthos, to ask why they cannot have children, she is reunited with her son. Following this myth, Stais identified the first three figures as Apollo, his mother, Leto, and his sister, Artemis, while recognizing the next five figures as the participants of this myth: the Pythia, who was Apollo's priestess, Ion, Xuthus, Hermes, and Creusa. Next he identifies three nymphs and Eileithyia. Finally he believes that the bull-like deity is Kephisos, thus connecting the myth of Ion to the locality of the sanctuary. [8]
Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, and more. One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. He is considered to be the most beautiful god and is represented as the ideal of the kouros. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Artemis is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. In later times, she was identified with Selene, the personification of the Moon. She was often said to roam the forests and mountains, attended by her entourage of nymphs. The goddess Diana is her Roman equivalent.
In ancient Greek religion, Hera is the goddess of marriage, women, and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Olympus, sister and wife of Zeus, and daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. One of her defining characteristics in myth is her jealous and vengeful nature in dealing with any who offended her, especially Zeus's numerous adulterous lovers and illegitimate offspring.
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Leto is a goddess and the mother of Apollo and Artemis. She is the daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe, and the sister of Asteria.
Agdistis is a deity of Greek, Roman, and Anatolian mythology who was a Hermaphrodite, having been born with both male and female reproductive organs. The deity was closely associated with the Phrygian goddess Cybele.
Aphaia was a Greek goddess who was worshipped almost exclusively at a single sanctuary on the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf.
Eileithyia or Ilithyia was the Greek goddess of childbirth and midwifery, and the daughter of Zeus and Hera. In the cave of Amnisos (Crete) she was related with the annual birth of the divine child, and her cult is connected with Enesidaon, who was the chthonic aspect of the god Poseidon. It is possible that her cult is related with the cult of Eleusis. In his Seventh Nemean Ode, Pindar refers to her as the maid to or seated beside the Moirai (Fates) and responsible for the creation of offspring. Her son was Sosipolis, who was worshiped at Elis.
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Iris is a daughter of the gods Thaumas and Electra, the personification of the rainbow and messenger of the gods, a servant to the Olympians and especially Queen Hera.
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the twelve Olympians are the major deities of the Greek pantheon, commonly considered to be Zeus, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter, Aphrodite, Athena, Artemis, Apollo, Ares, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus. They were called Olympians because, according to tradition, they resided on Mount Olympus.
Uni is the ancient goddess of marriage, fertility, family, and women in Etruscan religion and myth, and was the patron goddess of Perugia. She is identified as the Etruscan equivalent of Juno in Roman mythology, and Hera in Greek mythology. As the supreme goddess of the Etruscan pantheon, she is part of the Etruscan trinity, an original precursor to the Capitoline Triad, made up of her husband Tinia, the god of the sky, and daughter Menrva, the goddess of wisdom.
Brauron was one of the twelve cities of ancient Attica, but never mentioned as a deme, though it continued to exist down to the latest times. It was situated on or near the eastern coast of Attica, between Steiria and Halae Araphenides, near the river Erasinus. Brauron is celebrated on account of the worship of Artemis Brauronia, in whose honour a festival was celebrated in this place. This site includes the remains of a temple, a stoa, and a theatre, providing insights into the religious practices and social life of ancient Greece. Its significance as a religious and cultural site can be further understood through the exploration of its archeological remains and historical accounts.
Kore is the modern term given to a type of free-standing ancient Greek sculpture of the Archaic period depicting female figures, always of a young age. Kouroi are the youthful male equivalent of kore statues.
Delphi Archaeological museum is one of the principal museums of Greece and one of the most visited. It is operated by the Greek Ministry of Culture. Founded in 1903, it has been rearranged several times and houses the discoveries made at the Panhellenic sanctuary of Delphi, which date from the Late Helladic (Mycenean) period to the early Byzantine era.
The Temple of Hera, or Heraion, is an ancient Archaic Greek temple at Olympia, Greece, that was dedicated to Hera, queen of the Greek gods. It was the oldest temple at Olympia and one of the most venerable in all Greece. It was originally a joint temple of Hera and Zeus, chief of the gods, until a separate temple was built for him. It is at the altar of this temple, which is oriented east-west, that the Olympic flame is lit and carried to all parts of the world. The torch of the Olympic flame is lit in its ruins to this day. The temple was built in approximately 590 BC, but was destroyed by an earthquake in the early 4th century AD.
In Ancient Greek religion and mythology, Enodia is a distinctly Thessalian goddess, identified in certain areas or by certain ancient writers with Artemis, Hecate or Persephone. She was paired with Zeus in cult and sometimes shared sanctuaries with him. Enodia was primarily worshipped in Ancient Thessaly and was well known in Hellenistic Macedonia.
Yarhibol or Iarhibol is an Aramean god who was worshiped mainly in ancient Palmyra, a city in central Syria. He was depicted with a solar nimbus and styled "lord of the spring". He normally appears alongside Bel, who was a co-supreme god of Palmyra, and Aglibol, one of the other top Palmyrene gods.
Kourotrophos is the name that was given in ancient Greece to gods and goddesses whose properties included their ability to protect young people. Numerous gods are referred to by the epithet such as Athena, Apollo, Hermes, Hecate, Aphrodite, Artemis, Eileithyia, Demeter, Gaia, Cephissus and Asclepius. They were usually depicted holding an infant in their arms. Deianeria and Ariadne were occasional shown on vases with their children, Hyllus and Staphylos and Oenopion respectively, but there is no evidence that there was a cult around them as kourotrophic figures.
The religious element is difficult to identify in Mycenaean Greece, especially as regards archaeological sites, where it remains very problematic to pick out a place of worship with certainty. John Chadwick points out that at least six centuries lie between the earliest presence of Proto-Greek speakers in Hellas and the earliest inscriptions in the Mycenaean script known as Linear B, during which concepts and practices will have fused with indigenous Pre-Greek beliefs, and—if cultural influences in material culture reflect influences in religious beliefs—with Minoan religion. As for these texts, the few lists of offerings that give names of gods as recipients of goods reveal little about religious practices, and there is no other surviving literature.
Dea Gravida or Dea Tyria Gravida was either a goddess or representation of mortal women that were associated with procreation and fertility deriving from Phoenician culture and spreading within the Phoenician circle of influence. Although not much is known about the cult surrounding Dea Gravida, votive terracotta statues have been found throughout the Mediterranean, most notably in Phoenicia and Cyprus. The figure differs from kourotrophic figures that hold babies and are not visibly pregnant.
The Cave Sanctuaries of the Acropolis of Athens are the natural fissures in the rock of the Acropolis hill that were used as sites of worship for deities of the Panhellenic pantheon in antiquity. Traditionally a sharp distinction has been drawn between the state religion practised on the summit of the Acropolis and the cult practice of the shrines on the lower slopes. Recently, however, interest has burgeoned in the individual religious experience or personal piety in Greek society of which these cult sites may be the expression. The proceeding description follows the order of the shrines from the Klepsydra at the northwest face of the Acropolis clockwise via the Peripatos round to the foot of the Nike bastion.
